THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD
The world map changed radically after the Second World War. The colonial
empires of the European nations dissolved and many countries of Asia and Africa
became independent. The UNO had 51 members in 1945, and now in 2002 there
are 191 members.
THE COLD WAR
After the Second World War Soviet Russia encouraged Communist movements
all over the world. Thus Eastern Europe saw the emergence of Communist regimes
in many countries. The western part of Germany which was under the supervision
of UK, USA and France, became a democratic country (1949). Similarly Communist
government came into existences in East Germany, Poland, Hungary,
Czechoslovakia, Rumania, Yugoslavia. In China too Communist regime headed by
Mao Tse Tung came into existence (1949). The world came to be divided into two
blocs. ‘Free’ or those permitting private capital and the Communists permitting only
state capital. The leaders of these two blocs were the USA and Soviet Russia
(USSR-Union of Soviet Socialist Republic) respectively.
Both Soviet Russia and China encouraged Communist Revolutions in other
countries. In 1949, Soviet Russia tested nuclear bomb. This led to ‘cold war’
between the two blocs. The clouds of the Third World War appeared. Many East
European countries allied themselves with Russia and also became subjected to
the rule of the Communist par ty; Russia and China signed a defense treaty in 1950.
Soviet Russia took aggressive position with regard to Greece and Turkey. US
President Truman declared that in case Turkey or any other country faced Communist
threat, USA would provide protection to that country. The cold war intensified in
1950-53 when there was a civil war in Korea and USA helped South Korea and
China extended help to North Korea. The civil war ended with the division of Korea
into North and South Korea.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) signed between USA, UK
(Britain) and other west European countries took shape in 1949. The South-East
Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) formed in 1954 was another The USA-led defence
pact. Turkey, Iran and Pakistan formed Central Asia Treaty Organization (CENTO).
In reply to this, Soviet Russia formed the Warsaw Pact with communist countries.
Testing of atomic and hydrogen bombs and launching of Inter-Continental Ballistic
Missiles by both the blocks further sharpened the edge of the cold war. Even in
space research, competition between the two countries intensified and Soviet
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Russia launched a spacecraft. It was a great achievement for the USA when it
landed man on the moon.
In 1958, there was a Communist Revolution in the American continent and
Cuba became a Communist country. This led to the two blocs coming to the edge
of a war. The Vietnam War (1955-75) which was fought on ideological grounds made
the Communists victorious, and America’s direct involvement in it caused immense
loss to it. Though both the blocs owned the most dangerous nuclear weapons, out
of fear of being destroyed, they were never used and world war did not take place.
BREACHES IN RED BLOC : After the death of Stalin (1953), despite the launching
of satellite and achieving substantial success in the field of space research,
dissatisfaction among the common people went on increasing. When the East
European countries like Poland, Hungary and East Germany tried to free themselves
from the Soviet Russian hold, the Russian army suppressed the efforts. But when
Tito of Yugoslavia revolted, Soviet Russia could not do anything. In 1978 Soviet
Russia invaded Afghanistan. In the meanwhile, there were differences between
Soviet Russia and China and there was a breach in the Communist bloc.
After Gorbachev became the president in 1985, things changed substantially.
Later the Communist system slowly declined and democracy was established. The
US president, Reagan met Gorbachev in 1987, the intensity of ‘cold war' was very
much reduced. In 1988 the Russian army returned from Afghanistan. In 1989, the
Great Wall of Berlin which had politically separated the East and West Berlin was
demolished by people from both the sides. Subsequently, the two parts of Germany
were united (1990). In 1992, US president George Bush (Sr) and Russian President
Yeltstin met each other and ended the cold war. Thus the chances of the breaking
out of a World War III was prevented in the 20th century. Now Vladimir Putin is
the President.
CHANGES IN THE USSR : The eight countries which had been a part of USSR
declared independence in 1991. Later, a group 21 of countries which were in the
former USSR formed under the leadership of Russia ‘Commonwealth of Independent
States(CIS). But nations like Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia left the former Union
permanently. In 1994, Russia signed a treaty with NATO (Nor th Atlantic Treaty
Organization) and opened the path for mutual co-operation with the NATO nations.
The new government has started privatization of industries by freeing them from
government control. It has also welcomed foreign capital.
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FREEDOM MOVEMENT IN ASIA
After the Second World War, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma) and several
other countries of Asia got independence. Indonesia, former East Indies, which was
a part of the Dutch Empire, declared itself free under the leadership of Sukarno
in 1945. But soon after the end of the Second World War, the Dutch army again
entered Indonesia. But the UNO intervened in 1949 and Indonesia's freedom was
assured.
Burma had been captured by Japan during the Second World War. When the
war ended, the British resumed administration. Later elections were held in 1948
and Burma was granted freedom. The country has been renamed as Myanmar in
1989. The army rules the country.
Malaya was a part of Malay peninsula and was under the control of the British.
It became free in 1957. Territories like Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei and Singapore
formed a new nation called Malaysia in 1963. But Singapore and Brunei came out
of the new nation and became a separate republics.
Ceylon also became free in 1948. It has renamed itself as Sri Lanka in 1972.
India, the Maldives, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Bhutan have
formed South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation (SAARC) in 1985.
Kathmandu is the headquarters of this body.
FREEDOM OF AFRICAN NATIONS
The European powers like England, France, Belgium, Portugal had their
colonies in Africa. The Africans were inspired by the example of India to fight for
their freedom.
Libya secured freedom from Italy in 1952. Kenya fought under the leadership
of Jomo Kenyatta. The fighters called ‘Mau Mau’ continued their revolt for four years.
Kenya became free in 1963 and also became a republic.
Kenya's neighbouring kingdom Tanganyika fought against the British under
the leadership of Nyerere and became free and formed a union with Zanzibar island
with the name Tanzania in 1964. Uganda too became free in 1963 under the
leadership of Obote. Similarly, Ghana, earlier known in as Gold Coast became free
in 1957.
Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco and Guinea which were under the French, became
free in the decade between 1950 and 1960. In 1960, 17 African countries including
Nigeria and Congo secured freedom. Angola and Mozambique which were under
the Portuguese were freed in 1975.
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Some of the African countries on the coast like Libya, Morocco and Egypt
belong to the Arab race; Egypt was under the control of Britain. In 1869 they
constructed the Suez Canal and this great venture resulted in connecting the Red
sea and the Mediterranean sea. Egypt continued a great struggle and became free
in 1922. The king of Egypt was dethroned by Nasser and Egypt became a republic
in 1953. Due to its oil resources Egypt became a rich country and Nasser as the
President (1954), achieved rapid progress in agriculture by completing the Aswan
Dam across the Nile.
The African nations formed the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963,
and it has 53 members.
THE MIDDLE EAST
The Jews who had been scattered all over the world, and faced humiliation
and cruelty at the hands of the Nazis, were helped by the USA and England to have
a new homeland called Israel. The city of Jerusalem and its surroundings were
considered as their homeland and they settled down there in 1945. Israel, as a new
nation, was recognized by the UNO in 1947. But the Palestinians of Arab origin
who had earlier settled there became refugees. Israel became a powerful nation
despite all opposition. Israel was slow in keeping the promises it had made to
accommodate the Palestinians.
As the Palestinians were supported by the Arabs, the surrounding areas of
Israel turned into a battlefield. In 1956, Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, and later
shut it in 1967. This caused wars in the Middle East from 1949-1967 and Israel
occupied the Gaza strip on the West Bank of the Jordan River. But according to
the Camp David Agreement between Egypt and Israel (1978), Israel evacuated the
Sinai Peninsula (1982). Israel agreed to establish an autonomous state of Palestine
in 1993. But there have been serious difference between Arafat, the leader of the
Palestinian Liberation Army (PLA) and Israel. Hamas, a terrorist group has been
indulging in terrorist activities. This problem of the Middle East has been a challenge
to peace.
Another point of unrest in the Middle East is Iran. The Shah (ruler) of Iran was
dethroned by the Iranian orthodoxy led by Khomeni in 1979. The attempts to
modernize Iran by Shah caused the revolution. Iraq raised the issue of its border
with Iran and attacked Iran in 1980. This was the First Gulf war which continued
till 1988.
Ancient Mesopotamia is modern Iraq. It is a rich country because of its oil
resources. Saddam Hussein, the dictator of Iraq, after ending of the conflict with
Iran, attacked Kuwait in 1990. This led to the Gulf War II. the USA intervened on
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behalf of UNO and Iraq was forced to withdraw from Kuwait in 1991.
There are many Muslim nations in West Asia. Some Muslim subjects of these
nations have joined the terrorist groups like ‘Al-Qaeda’. Osama bin Laden is the
leader of the Al-Qaeda. Though the cold war has ended, some of the terrorists are
keen on settling scores with Israel. Russia’s withdrawal from Afghanistan
strengthened the terrorists called Taliban.
The Al-Qaeda terrorist made aerial attack on two tall sky scrapers in New York
on 11th September 2001 and destroyed them. This provoked USA to attack
Afghanistan and destroy Taliban government in 2002. In fact the USA had encouraged
this very Taliban forces with finance and weapons to fight against Russia. The USA
has secured the support of Pakistan to fight these terrorists. Surprisingly Pakistan
is the country which is encouraging terrorist activity in Kashmir and other parts of
India.
Iraq was believed to possess many banned weapons of mass destruction. Iraq
did not agree to the UNO's proposal for the inspection of its arsenal. In 2001 USA
and UK bombed many strategic centres in Iraq. The UNO finally sent its team of
Inspectors to examine the arsenal of Iraq. Though no evidence was found over the
existence of dangerous weapons, USA and UK invaded Iraq in March 2003. Saddam
Hussein’s regime ended. The whole episode has infringed on the powers of the
UNO.
THE END OF THE APARTHEID: South Africa which was
the former British colony followed the Apartheid or the policy
of racial discrimination against the native Africans who are
in absolute majority. The administration was in the hands
of the White minority. The Blacks led by Nelson Mandela
continued a prolonged campaign. This struggle had begun
when Gandhiji was in Africa. All the nations of the world had
imposed sanctions against South Africa and banned
economic and other relations with South Africa for its racial
policy. Mandela underwent a long period of imprisonment.
Finally he was released and the Apartheid ended in 1994.
This is a major development of the 20th century.
THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT : When the cold war was at its height, the Non-
Aligned Nations Movement (NAM) was initiated in 1955 at Bandung in Indonesia.
Sukarno of Indonesia, Nasser of Egypt, Nehru of India and Tito of Yugoslavia were
its leaders. The first meeting of these developing nations was held at Belgrade in
1961, and from a membership of 25, the NAM came to have 114 members.
Nelson Mandel
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Map of Africa
The movement tried its best to defuse the cold war trends which would have
caused the third world war. Disarmament, helping trade connections between the
backward nations and cooperation between them, were the main items on its
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agenda. India played a prominent part in the movement. As the cold war has ended
the movement too declined. Its 13th conference was held at Kuala Lumpur in 2003.
The cold war has ended. Fear of the third world war has waned. But the world
is witnessing many terrorist movements. The world has not been fully prepared to
accept the progressive system like democracy. A war against diseases, poverty and
illiteracy is being continued. New diseases like AIDS, threat to environments and
water scarcity have become new problems. All the nations of the world have to find
solutions to these problems unitedly.
EXERCISES
I Answer the following questions in two or three sentences:
1. What were the results of the formation of Israel?
2. Define cold war.
3. Which were the important countries which supported the Amer ican bloc?
4. Which were the main countries that sided the bloc led by the USSR?
5. What were the East Asian issues which would have caused the Third World War?
6. How did the policy of Apartheid end?
7. Who were the leaders of the Non-Aligned movement?
8. Mention the names of five nations in Asia which attained freedom.
9. Name five African nations that became free.
10. What were the main causes of unrest in the Middle East?
11. What are the causes of the present crisis of Iraq?
12. What were the reasons for Iranian unrest against its Shah?
13. What was the reason for the II Gulf War? Mention the result?
14. Why did the USA and UK attack Iraq in 2003? What was the result?
15. What were the aims of the Non-Aligned Movement?
II Fill in the blanks:
1. The American bloc signed defence treaties like….........and….........
2. The Russian bloc signed the treaty called….........
3. The organization defeated by the USA in Afghanistan is….........
4. Israel withdrew from Sinai after….........agreement.
5. The name of the Palestinian forces is ….........
6. The attack on New York engineered in 2001 ….........
III Activity:
1. Study the biography of these leaders :
1. Nelson Mandela
2. Josef Tito
3. Dr. Sukarno
*****

INDIA AND WORLD PROBLEMS

Chapter 3
INDIA AND WORLD PROBLEMS
The growth of Science and Technology have brought a number of changes
in the world. It is because of this there is a change in the way of life of human
beings. However, such progress is proving to be contrary to human life. Hence,
the world is faced with the problems of Human Rights, Terrorism, Apartheid, use
of dangerous weapons, and economic inequality.
HUMAN RIGHTS
Human rights are essential for individual’s existence and development. All
individual should enjoy human rights without any distinction of race, religion, caste,
colour or sex. It is a pity that throughout history, we find that large sections of
humans are denied of these rights. The struggle to achieve them is carried by the
writers, poets, philosophers and social reformers.
In this direction, two important incidents are note worthy. The American War
of Independence in 1776 and the French Revolution of 1789. On both the occasions
it was announced that all men are equal and continue to be equal. The two great
wars during the last century strengthened the faith in democracy which believes
in human rights. The U.N.O. which was established after the Second World War
to protect peace in the world declared its faith in human rights in 1948. There are
thirty human rights. However certain important rights are explained here.
The announcement of these rights by a world body is a bold step in the field
of protection of these rights. The General Assembly of the United Nation proclaimed
on December 10, 1948 as follows: The human beings are born free and equal in
dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act
towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. The human rights are classified
in two groups. In the first group we come across right to life which is considered
as a natural right, which cannot be confiscated by anyone. In the second group
we come across freedom which means all men are born free and are equal to each
other. Hence, every one has liberty and security of person. No one shall be held
in slavery or servitude. The slave trade in all the forms is prohibited. All are equal
before law and laws are equally applicable to all - freedom of movement, freedom
of thinking, right to live as free citizens. Further, these rights assure social security,
rights to work and leisure, standard of life and education.
India became a member of UNO even before attainment of independance.
India stressed Human Rights later it was given important in our constitution. India’s
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firm desire to follow peaceful methods in settling the disputes confirms her support
to the U.N.O. and its policies. India believes in co-existence and human dignity and
these things can be seen in the Directive Principles of state policy of the Indian
Constitution.
DISCRIMINATION AGAINST THE NATIVE AFRICANS
Abraham Lincoln was the first person who condemned racial discrimination
and the practice of slavery. As no one is a slave, no one is a master was his belief.
Till recently, the Negroes were denied the basic right of vote in South Africa and
elsewhere. But African National Congress leader Nelson Mandela fought against
this and was in jail for 26 years. Even after the declaration of Human rights, the
practice was still in vogue in South Africa. India and many other countries opposed
the Apartheid in South Africa, and many nations severed their diplomatic links with
South Africa. The UNO also imposed military and economic sanctions. Finally, the
South African Government freed Mandela and the President F.W.Clark entered into
an agreement to end the Apartheid in 1993 with Mandela becoming the President
of South Africa.
Another person who fought against the discrimination against the African
Americans in the U.S.A. was Martin Luther King Jr., popularly known as Gandhi
of America.
DISARMAMENT
The growth of science has given impetus to the production of dangerous
weapons like atom bomb etc. The development of nuclear power and its use in
war is detrimental to human race. One cannot forget the damage caused by the
explosion of atom bomb in the Second World War. Increased production of nuclear,
chemical and biological weapons on mass scale and the competition among nations
in their production had brought the world to the brink of a major war. The very
existence of humanity is under threat. Such weapons can fall into the hands of
terrorists also. In this direction an agreement was reached by the nations of the
world to stem this competition in 1955 and the Disarmament Treaty was signed.
However, the world today is threatened with nuclear stock pile and the world is
aware of the nuclear danger of arms race and nuclear war. Steps should be taken
to prevent such course which may cause the total articulation of human race.
To save the world from war, a number of treaties are concluded between
America, Soviet Union and other countries of the world. Prominent among them
are given below:
1. During 1963, an agreement was concluded between U.S.A., England and
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Soviet Russia over limited inspection of Atomic Weapons and their test.
According to this Nuclear Test Ban Treaty use of atomic weapons and their
test in space, under sea and in open environment was banned. However it
does not restrict underground test.
2. In 1967, a space treaty was signed by U.S.A. and Soviet Union. Under this
treaty no military activity is permitted in the outer space; 63 nations have
signed this treaty.
3. In 1970, Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty was signed between U.S.A., England
and Russia by which helping other nation to produce nuclear weapons and
supplying nuclear weapons to others was banned. Russia and U.S.A. have
concluded a treaty to reduce the atomic weapons under their control in 2002.
It is a welcome feature that American President George Bush and Soviet
Prime Minister Putin have signed this agreement. Despite the Treaty of 1970,
India, China, France and Pakistan have acquired the knowledge to produce
the nuclear weapon. So far only 43 nations have given their consent to the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The prominent development in this direction
is the Biological Weapon Convention of 1975 which accepted the prohibition
of production of biological weapons and stock-piling them. However, despite
all these efforts the world is not free from the fear of nuclear weapons. The
other important development in the direction of disarmament is the Treaty of
1988 between USA and Russia to destroy the Inter-Continental Ballistic
Missiles of far and medium ranges. Another development in this direction is
the treaty between N.A.T.O. and Warsaw Pact nations to reduce their armies.
This agreement was signed in 1992.
4. It is a pity that despite all such agreements the race for arms is not reduced.
India, no doubt, agrees for total ban on nuclear weapons. But it is not willing
to sign a treaty because of her own security risks. However India upholds the
principle of ‘Atom for peace’. It is for this reason a misunderstanding developed
between India and U.S.A. However, terrorist attacks all over the world has
made U.S.A. realize the Indian position in this regard. Amercia attacked Iraq
in March 2003 thinking that Iraq has possessed banned nuclear weapons.
ECONOMIC INEQUALITY
The problem of economic inequality among the nations of the world is a
serious problem that the contemporary world is facing. This problem is not limited
only to the developing nations, because even among the developed nations there
is a race for development. As America is an economically advanced nation, the
other developed nations wish to catch up with America. When this is the attitude
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of developed nations, what can be the attitude of developing nations of Asia, Africa
and Latin America? They are struggling to achieve economic self-sufficiency
because mere political independence has no value unless it is supported by
economic independence. The matter that we have to bear in mind is that these
countries were totally backward in matters like science and technology. When they
achieved independence, their standard of living was far below when compared to
the developed nations. So they were totally backward in fields of education, health,
agriculture etc. Hence, they were dependent on other advanced countries.
Unfortunately, this led to a new form of imperialism and colonialism because the
developed nations impose various conditions while trying to help backward nations.
1. The nations who receive the help are required to purchase the readily
available products of the helping country.
2. The country receiving the aid has to provide the country helping them
with their resources like minerals and other raw materials.
3. The nations which receive help are required to keep their doors open for
investment of foreign capital from the nation extending help.
This leads to economic slavery though the nations are politically independent.
In this regard, the only way left to the developing nations is to depend on self help;
but this is not easy. In the face of such situation, globalization and open market
systems have posed serious problems to the developing nations due to import of
cheap goods from technically advanced countries and creating crisis in local
industries. It is because of these reasons the ‘Third World’ concept has emerged.
These newly independent countries can achieve expected progress through mutual
co-operation and exchange. It is this concept of mutual help that has given rise
to various regional organizations in the recent past. Some existing organizations
are also utilized. An attempt is made here in a brief manner to explain them.
COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS
The Commonwealth came into existence during 1931. The members of the
Commonwealth were earlier imperial possessions of the British Empire. They had
close relationship with Britain. Later when they became independent, they wanted
to retain their relationship. Some of the countries like Australia and Canada wanted
to continue their loyalty to the British Crown as their sovereign head of the state.
Their wish initiated this Commonwealth of Nations. However, countries like India
and others continued to be the members of Commonwealth to have mutual
relationship like members of a family to protect mutual interests like Trade, Commerce,
Education and Cultural connections.
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Under this union it is easy to secure financial loan and sharing of technology
for the progress of such nations. Further the commonwealth promotes the sharing
and exchange of information and technology in matters of radio, television education,
sports, health and the development of scientific research etc. It is because of these
reasons relationship has developed among the nations of Commonwealth, which
serves as a good example of co-existence among the member nations.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY
The other organisation which has come into existence for regional co-operation
among the European nations is the European Community. It is an union of the
countries belonging to Western Europe which came into existence in 1957. It is
meant mostly for economic co-operation. It aimed at lifting of tariff barriers to facilitate
free flow of trade. It acts as a coordinating agency to bring about unity among the
European nations. It has attempted to create some kind of political federation also
with a common parliament. The notable achievement of this organisation is the
introduction of ‘Euro’ a new currency system in Europe. This is not a small
achievement. This has helped promotion of free trade among European nations and
is a great progressive step.
THE ASEAN
Association of South-East Asian Nations consists of nations like Singapore
and Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, etc., These countries after securing the political
freedom established this association during 1967 by assembling in the city of
Bangkok. Its aim was to promote political and economic relations among the nations
which were subjected to maltreatment by the U.S.A., particularly, Vietnam and
the political crises seen in nations like Indonesia, Cambodia, Loas etc. The main
aims are (1) To establish peace in South-East Asia; (2) To develop socio economic
co-operations; (3) To improve education, technology and science by imparting
training in the field of research; (4) Mutual exchange and help in matters concerning
industry and agriculture; (5) Work with co-ordination in other matters of international
forum.In the recent past, India has established her contact with the ASEAN and
Prime Minister paid a visit to these countries to strengthen our ties.
THE OAU
The Organisation for African Unity came into being in 1963. The chief objectives
of the organizations are fostering unity and solidarity among the African States,
elimination of colonialism and defending the independence of member states.
O.A.U. was started by 32 African states but at present the number is increased
to 53 in 2000.
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SAARC
South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation comprises of India, the
Maldives, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Bhutan and Nepal. The seven South
Asian countries launched this organisation during 1985 by assembling in Dhaka.
The aim of this organisation is to identify the problems in mutual relations and find
solution through co-operation in the fields of agriculture, health, rural development,
science and technology and transport.
The headquarters is located in Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal. The
ministers of the member states meet from time to time and take useful decisions.
The annual meeting is called once in a year. In 1986, second SAARC Conference
was held in Bangalore.
SAARC has launched a number of programmes and there is no trade barrier
among these nations as they have agreed to a treaty named South Asian Preferential
Trade Agreement (SAPTA). Fur ther, for the Economic development an organisation
by name South Asian Development (SAD) is also established. In the recent past
SAARC sports and games have been organized. To promote the social and cultural
relationship among the member of states of SAARC, an audio-visual exchange
organisation is established. But strained Indo-Pak relations have caused some setback
to the organisation.
INDIA AND ITS ROLE IN THE THIRD WORLD
After the Second World War, two blocs, one belonging to U.S.A. and the other
to Soviet Union came into existence. This was the cause for cold war. But there
are certain nations which did not belong to any group. Such underdeveloped
countries belonging to Asia, Africa and Latin America were called “Third World”
by a person belonging to Algeria by name Frantz Fanon. These nations have evolved
foreign policies of their own.
The division of the world into blocs has not undermined international relations
with the third world. To avoid war and achieve economic progress peace and coexistence,
these nation have created a new model and an economic order which
is popularly known as New International Economic Order.
India being a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement has taken the leadership
in promoting quality and economic progress. Further it has extended the necessary
technological help through Colombo Plan, SAARC etc. India is thus marching
forward to find its own place among the nations of the world.
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EXERCISES
I. Write answers in a sentence or two:
1. Name a few important Human Rights.
2. What is meant by the Apartheid?
3. What is meant by Arms Race?
4. What is the stand taken by India in the case of Nuclear powers?
5. What is meant by ASEAN?
6. Explain SAARC. When did it come into being?
7. How are Human Rights protected under the Indian Constitution?
8. Why has not India given her consent to the nuclear non-proliferation treaty? What are
the reasons? Why
9. Explain the concept of Biological Convention.
10. What makes you think that India is wedded to non-alignment?
II Write a short note on:
1. Racial discrimination policy followed in South Africa.
2. Nelson Mandela.
3. The New Economic Order.
4. How can the regional inequalities can be removed?
5. A note on Commonwealth of Nations.
III Activities:
1. Arrange a discussion on SAARC.
2. Conduct a group discussion on Human Rights.
* * * * *

COTTAGE AND SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIES

Chapter 2
COTTAGE AND SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIES:
Cottage industries are also called Household Industries. They are carried on by
craftsmen in their own houses with the help of family members and apprentices (persons
who want to learn the craft). They are mainly concentrated in villages. Wood and stone
carving, basket making, toy making, handloom, pottery, carpentry, rope making, smithy,
painting etc. are the examples of cottage industries. Some of these occupations are
hereditary in nature. They produce goods mainly for the local market.
Small-scale industries are organized on a small scale in a particular building or
shed. They may use electric power. e.g. instead of hand crushing of oil, electric crushers
are used. They employ labourers. Modern techniques are also adopted to produce
goods. Some of the examples of small-scale industries are chemicals, engineering
goods, shoes, bicycles, radios, sewing machines, garments, soaps, electrical fans etc.
Many of the products manufactured here are exported.
ROLE OF SMALL-SCALE AND COTTAGE INDUSTRIES IN THE ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT OF INDIA:
1. They provide employment to a large number of unemployed and under-employed
people of rural areas and thus help to solve rural unemployment problems.
2. They provide alternative jobs to rural masses and reduce the pressure of population
on land.
3. They do not require huge capital to start with.
4. They can be started with indigenous resources.
5. They provide opportunity to the people of rural areas for the utilization of their
hidden talents.
6. They are not exposed to many problems like strikes or lockouts that are common
in manufacturing industries.
7. They do not require large power supply.
8. They help in decentralization of industries and thus prevent air and other types of
pollutions and formation of slums. They also help in fair distribution of population.
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9. They provide self-employment to many.
10. They are feeders to many large-scale industries.
11. They help to improve the standard of living of the people by providing occupation
to many.
12. They avoid concentration of wealth instead help in the distribution of wealth.
13. They provide alternate job opportunities to farmers when their crops fail, due to
natural calamities.
14. The handicrafts bring out the hidden talents of the people and goods are produced
according to the taste of the people.
Problems of cottage and small-scale industries:
1. Inadequate supply of raw materials: These industries do not get adequate raw
materials regularly at reasonable prices. Often they are forced to use inferior raw
materials. This has resulted in the production of sub-standard goods.
2. Lack of suitable machines: These industries are not able to use suitable machines
and tools. The machines and tools are costly and the people are unable to buy
them.
3. Irregular supply of electricity: Small-scale industries require regular supply of
electricity, but they face the problem of shortage of power and frequent power cuts.
So, it is very difficult to make progress.
4. Old and out-dated techniques: They are still following old and out dated
techniques. So, they produce low quality and sub-standard goods.
5. Lack of adequate finance: It is one of the most serious problems faced by small
scale and cottage industries. They do not have proper sources of finance and also
they do not have proper knowledge about the sources of capital.
6. Poor marketing conditions: The marketing arrangements and transport facilities
are poor. In the towns, they do not get proper price. Many a times, they are cheated
by the middlemen.
7. Competition from large-scale industries: Many goods that are produced in
cottage and small-scale industries are also produced in manufacturing industries.
184
These industries cannot escape from the competition from large-scale industries.
Development of cottage and small-scale industries is one of the policies of our
National Government. Many industrial policies have been announced and priority has
been given to the development of cottage and small-scale industries.
Our Five-Year Plans have spent about 3,000 crore rupees from First Plan to Sixth
Plan for the development of small-scale and cottage industries. The important measures
required to improve cottage and small scale industries are a) Organizational help, b)
Financial assistance, c) Technical help, d) Training to workers, e) Supply of raw materials
and power and f) Helpin marketing
a) Organizational help: The Central Government has set up many institutions to
help our small-scale and cottage industries. The important ones are :
1. Central small industries organization: It was set up to provide guidance to
craftsmen and small producers in the organization of cottage and small-scale
industries.
2. National small industries corporation: It was established by the central
government to provide assistance for the organization of industrial estates to
house small scale industries.
3. All India Boards: Several all India boards, such as Khadi and Village Industries
Board, Cottage Industries Board, Small Scale Industries Board, Silk Board, All
India Coir Board, etc., have been set up for promoting cottage and small scale
industries.
b) Financial help:
1. “State aid to Industries Act” has been passed to enable the state governments to
provide medium term loans at low rate of interest to small producers.
2. Every state has set up State Finance Corporation to provide medium term loans to
small producers.
3. The Central Government has set up the National Small Industries Corporation to
enable the small producers to purchase machinery.
4. The State Bank of India and other nationalised banks also advance money to
small producers.
185
5. Industrial Development Bank of India has been directed to provide loans to
cottage and small-scale industries.
6. The craftsmen in the villages have been encouraged to organize industrial cooperative
societies.
c) Technical help:
Central Small Industries Organizations has been started to provide technical help
to small-scale and cottage industries. This organization has so far set up 16 small
industries service institutions and 65 extension centres to provide technical
guidance to plan the production, remove the defects, fuel economy, provide raw
materials, improve the quality of finished products, provide information regarding
production types etc.,
Industrial Design Centres have been setup for designing and adopting machines
suitable to Indian conditions. The small inventions development board has been
set up for the purpose of assisting the inventions in small-scale industries and to
provide appropriate technology to small industries.
d) Training to workers:
Government has set up a number of production-cum-training centres to give
training to workers. Mobile vans are being operated throughout the country to
impart training to workers working in small-scale and cottage industries.
e) Establishment of industrial estates:
A number of industrial estates have been set up all over the country by State
Governments. They provide the infra structure and other facilities like buildings,
roads, water supply, electricity etc. They also help in the establishment of smallscale
industries in such estates. Today there are about 585 industrial estates in our
country.
f) Marketing help:
National Small-Scale industries Corporation has been set up by the Central
Government. It helps to market the products produced in small-scale industries.
This corporation has made it possible to get a market from the government itself for
the products of small-scale industries. Many exhibitions are organized to get
demand for exports and liberal policy has been formulated to get export orders for
these products.
186
In recent years, the government has followed a preferential treatment to smallscale
and cottage industries. Excess cess has been levied on large-scale industries
and it is utilized for the promotion and development of small-scale industries.
Production of some goods is allocated to only small-scale industries. Small-scale
industries are included in priority sector for the purpose of supply of power, raw
materials, finance etc. As a result of various steps taken by the central and state
governments, they have made satisfactory progress during the last three decades.
EXERCISE
I. Answer the following questions in a sentence each.
1. How are cottage industries managed?
2. How are small-scale industries organized?
3. Give two examples of small-scale industries?
II. Answer the following questions:
1. How do industries help in the increase of agricultural products?
2. How does agriculture help in the progress of industries?
3. How are small-scale industries helpful to rural areas?
III. Answer the following questions in about ten sentences each:
1. How are small-scale and cottage industries helpful for the economic development of India?
Explain.
2. Explain the problems of small-scale industries.
3. What are the steps taken to provide technical help to cottage and small-scale industries?
Explain.
4. What are the steps taken to provide financial help to small scale and cottage industries?
IV. Activities:
1. List out the cottage industries in your neighbourhood.
2. Visit a small-scale industry near your place and list out their problems.
****

CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF INDIA

THE CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
As their empire expanded in India, the British had to face many problems
regarding the administrative set up. A lot of criticism was voiced in England over
the Company’s administration in India. With the expansion of the empire, there was
a need to bring about many administrative changes and also consider the demands
of the Indian public. The changes introduced by the British in the administration
of India and the regulations they passed served as the background for the growth
of India’s present Constitution.
THE REGULATING ACT : The Regulating Act passed by the British Parliament
in 1773 ended the Dual Government established by Robert Clive. Many regulations
were laid down to discipline the administration of the East India Company. (1) The
Governor of Bengal became the Governor-General of India with control over the
two other Presidencies (Bombay and Madras). Warren Hastings became the first
Governer General. (2) A Council of four members was constituted to for the
assistance of the Governor-General. (3) A Supreme Court was established at
Calcutta. (4) The Secretary of State for India was appointed in England to supervise
the Company’s affairs in India. He was answerable to the British Parliament.
THE PITT’S INDIA ACT-1784: (1) A Board of Control consisting of six members
was appointed in England to look after the Company’s affairs. (2) The number of
members of the Governor-General’s Council was reduced to three. (3) The East
India Company was subjected to the rules laid down by the British Government.
THE CHARTER ACT OF 1813 : The Charter granted to the Company by the British
Crown to trade in India was renewed periodically. When the Char ter was renewed
in 1813, certain new regulations were laid down. They were as follows: (1) The
Indian empire was declared as subject to the sovereign authority of the British
government (2) The ban on the entry of the Christian Missionaries into India was
lifted and the Missionaries were permitted to open schools and colleges in India.
(3) The Act also directed the government to earmark rupees one lakh per year for
the education of Indians.
THE CHARTER ACT OF 1833 : (1) The Company was forbidden to engage itself
in trade in India. It was to concentrate only on running the administration of India.
(2) Appointments (in government service) in India were to be made on the basis
of merit. (3) A law member was added to be the Governor-General’s Council and
the number rose again to four. Thomas Babington Macaulay was the first law
member.
30
THE CHARTER ACT OF 1853 : (1) The central legislature was started by adding
new legislative members to the Council (This is the beginning of the modern
Parliament). The legislative members were six in number. (2) Competitive
examinations were introduced for civil services. This Act is considered to be a
milestone in the history of Constitutional development. It created an effective
legislative wing.
THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT OF 1858 : After the 1857-58 uprising, India
came directly under the rule of the British Crown and this Act was passed for better
governance of India. (1) The Secretary of State for India was to be assisted by a
council called the India Council, consisting of 15 members. (2) The Governor-
General was also designated as the Viceroy of India and represented the Queen
in India. (3) In 1858 Queen Victoria by Proclamation promised impartial treatment
of the Indian princes and the people.
THE INDIAN COUNCILS ACT 1909
(MINTO-MORLEY REFORMS)
The two Indian Councils Acts of 1861, and 1891 increased the powers of the
legislative councils. They introduced elected bodies like municipalities at the local
level. In 1909, the Act also known as the Minto (Viceroy) and Morley (Secretary
of State for India) Reforms, was passed. (1) It provided for an increase in the number
of members at the Central Legislature from 16 to 60. (2) The Provincial Legislative
Council was expanded by adding elected members. (3) Separate communal
electorate was introduced.
THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIAN ACT 1919
The Act was also known as the Montague (Secretary of State) and Chelmsford
(Viceroy) Reforms,
1. The Act promised to gradually extend responsible government to India.
2. It further promised to develop local self-government bodies.
3. The powers of the Secretary of State for India were curtailed and a High
Commissioner for India was appointed.
4. The number of Indian members in the Viceroy’s Executive Council was
increased.
5. The Act provided for a bicameral legislature at the centre. The Council
of the States as the upper house with its term being three years and the
31
Legislative Assembly as the lower house with a term of five years. These
were the beginning of the present Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha.
6. The departments were divided into Central list (which included Defence,
Post and Telegraph, Railways etc.) and the Provincial list. (Land Revenue,
Local Self Government. Forest etc.)
7. At the Provincial level, Dyarchy was introduced. There were reserved
subjects like finance, police etc., and transferred subjects were like forests,
education, land revenue, health etc. The Governer and his Executive
Council was responsible for the reserved subjects. The elected ministers
were responsible for the transferred subjects. This was partly the beginning
of responsible government in India.
THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935
This was an important step in the shaping of our present Constitution. This
Act provided basic framework of the federal government for India.
1. The Act proposed for an All India Federation consisting of the provinces
of British India and the princely states.
2. A Federal Court having jurisdiction over the provinces and princely states
was established at the centre.
3. Dyarchy was abolished in the Provinces. The act provided for provincial
autonomy.
4. Dyarchy was introduced at the Centre and subjects were divided into
central list, provincial list and concurrent list.
5. The Reserve Bank of India was established.
THE INDIAN INDEPENDENCE ACT, 1947
India became independent and two independent states - India and Pakistan
were created. The rule of the British in India ended. All the provinces and princely
states were permitted to join either of the two states by the Act. A Constituent
Assembly was formed to frame the Constitution.
Till the time the Indian Constitution was ready, Mountbatten continued as the
Governor-General from August 1947 to June 1948. After that C. Rajagopalachari
was the Governor General of India till 25th January 1950. On Jan 26, India became
32
a Republic. But India continued to be a member of the British Commonwealth of
Nations, consisting of the countries formerly ruled by the Britain.
FRAMING THE CONSTITUTION
An interim government for
India was formed in September 1946
with Pandit Nehru as the Prime
Minister. The Government also
undertook the responsibility of
framing the Constitution of India with
the help of a Constituent Assembly
consisting of 308 members which
met from Dec, 1946. Babu Rajendra
Prasad was the president of this
Assembly. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
worked as the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constitution. On 26th
November 1949 the new Constitution was ready. It was brought into force on 26th
Jan, 1950. The structure and the theoretical objectives of the Constitution are based
on the principles that guided the freedom movement.
EXERCISES
I Fill in the blanks with suitable words:
1. The Act which helped the founding of the present Supreme Court in India was….......
2. The first law member of the Governor General Advisory Council was .............
3. Competitive examinations were introduced by the Act of............
II Answer the following question in two or three sentences:
1. What were the provisions of the Regulating Act?
2. What were the main features of the Charter of Act of 1813?
3. The Act of 1853 is considered to be a milestone in the history of Indian constitution. Why?
4. What were the main provisions of the Minto-Morley Reforms?
5. What were the changes introduced by the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms?
6. The Government of India Act of 1935 is a major step in the Constitutional development.
How?
7. What were the main features of the government of India Act of 1947?
*****
Dr. Rajendra Prasad Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

INDIAN GOVT AND POLITICS-SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

INDIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIANCONSTITUTION
The task of framing a constitution of a sovereign democratic nation is performed by a representative body of its people. Such a body elected by the people for the purpose of considering and adopting a constitution may be known as the Constituent Assembly. The constitution of India was framed by the Constituent Assembly (1946-49). Dr. Rajendra Prasad was its President and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee. The constitution of India is the product of efforts of the members of the Constituent Assembly.

The following are the salient features of the constitution of India:
1. Preamble
2. Written constitution
3. Rigid constitution
4. Federal system
5. Secular state
6. Parliamentary democracy
7. Fundamental rights
8. Directive principles of state policy
9. Fundamental duties
10. Judicial review
11. Universal adult franchise.

PREAMBLE
The constitution of India starts with a Preamble. The objective of the constitution is precisely given in the Preamble. It serves as a guide to interpret the provisions of the constitution. It is not a part of the constitution and hence not subject to judicial review.

According to the text of the preamble as it stands today after the forty second amendment Act of 1976:

The Preamble of the Indian constitution reads as follows:, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to Constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens:

JUSTICE, social, economic and political;

LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation:

IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty - sixth day of November, 1949 do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.

WRITTEN CONSTITUTION
A written constitution is one in which most of the basic rules and regulations are written down in a document. Indian constitution is a written one. It is lengthy also. The constitution of India came into force on 26, January, 1950. From that day onwards the Indians are celebrating 26 January of every year as Republic Day. The constitutions of Great Britain, Ireland, Canada and Australia were major sources for the Indian constitution. The framers of the Indian constitution borrowed from the constitutions of other countries keeping in mind the needs and conditions of India.

RIGID CONSTITUTION
According to Prof. Dicey, a rigid constitution is one under which certain laws generally known as constitutional or fundamental laws cannot be changed in the same manner as the ordinary laws are changed. Constitutional laws refer to those provisions of the constitution. Ordinary laws are those laws enacted by the Parliament with reference to the provisions of the constitution. The constitutional laws are placed above the ordinary law. A special procedure is prescribed in the Indian constitution to amend the provisions. Some of the provisions of the Indian constitution can be amended easily and the procedure is difficult for some others. Hence, our constitution consists of features of both flexible and rigid constitutions.

FEDERAL SYSTEM
Federalism is a system of government in which powers are
divided and distributed between the Central Government and State
Governments. Our constitution has the following federal features:-
1. Supremacy of the constitution
2. Rigid constitution
3. Division of powers
4. Independent judiciary
SECULAR STATE
The Indian constitution establishes a secular state. It means
there will be complete freedom to follow any religion. It guarantees to
all citizens freedom of faith, worship and conscience. It also means
107 108
equal respect for all religions. The basis of secularism is ethics and to
bring about a society of equality and justice.
PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRACY
The constitution of India provides for a parliamentary system
of government. It is also known as responsible government or cabinet
government.
A parliamentary form of government is that in which the
executive is responsible to the legislature. The executive of India has
two divisions. One is the nominal and the other is real. In India, the
nominal executive is the President of India. He is elected by an electoral
college for a period of five years. The real executive is the Prime Minister
and Council of Ministers. In a parliamentary form of government there
is individual responsibility as well as collective responsibility of the
members of the Council of Ministers. The constitution of India provides
a bicameral legislature consisting of the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha.
While Lok Sabha contains representatives directly elected by the people
on the basis of universal adult franchise, the Rajya Sabha mainly consists of representatives of the States.

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
Part III of the Indian constitution consists of Fundamental Rights
(Articles 12 to 35). These are indispensable for the growth of human
personality. They not only create proper conditions for the fullest
development of an individual, but also help in realising true democracy.
These rights ensure equality of all citizens in the eyes of law. Fundamental Rights maintain proper balance between the individual interests and the public good.

Right to Equality Right to Freedom
Right to Freedom of Religion
Right against Exploitation
Cultural and Educational Rights
Right to
Constitutional
Remedies
109 110
The constitution of India classified the Fundamental Rights under
six groups as follows: -
(a) Right to Equality
(b) Right to Freedom
(c) Right against Exploitation
(d) Right to Freedom of Religion
(e) Cultural and Educational Rights
(f) Right to constitutional Remedies
Right to property - has been abolished by the 44th Amendment
Act, 1978.
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
Part IV of the Indian constitution consists of Directive Principles
of State Policy (Articles 36 to 51). They are fundamental in the
governance of the country. Directive Principles of State Policy act as
a guide to the State and it is the duty of the State to apply these Principles
in making laws. They aim at the establishment of a welfare state in our
country.
Principles
Directive Principles of State Policy may be grouped into
following categories:
I. Socialist Principles
II. Gandhian Principles
III. International Principles
IV. Miscellaneous Principles
I. Socialist Principles
1. adequate means of livelihood for citizens, men and
women equally
2. equal pay for equal work.
II. Gandhian Ideologies:
Gandhiji

1. organisation of village panchayats to enable them to
functions as units of self-government.
2. promote cottage industries on an individual or co-operative
basis in rural areas.
3. promotion of educational and economic interest of
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker
sections.
4. raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living
and to improve public health.
5. organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry
6. preserving and improving the breeds and prohibiting
the slaughter of cows and calves and other milch and
draught cattle.
III. International Principles
1. promote international peace and security
2. maintain just and honourable relations between nations
IV. Miscellaneous Principles
1. equal justice and free legal aid
2. uniform civil code for the citizens
Fundamental Duties
The Forty-Second Amendment Act of 1976 added Part IV
A (Article 51A) in the Indian constitution containing ten duties for
all the citizens of India. According to former Prime Minister of
India Mrs. Gandhi, moral value of the fundamental duties would
be “not to smother rights but to establish a democratic balance” by
making the people conscious of their duties equally as they are
conscious of their rights.
(a) to abide by the constitution and respect its ideals and
institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our
national struggle for freedom
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity
of India
(d) to defend the country and render national service when
called upon to do so
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common
brotherhood amongst all the people of India
transcending religious, linguistic, and regional or
sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory
to dignity of women
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite
culture
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment
including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to
have compassion for living creatures
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the
spirit of inquiry and reform
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual
and collective activity so that the nation constantly rises
to higher levels of endeavour and achievement
JUDICIAL REVIEW
Our constitution provides independence to judiciary. The
Supreme Court and the High Courts in India enjoy the power of
Judicial Review. The power of judiciary to declare law as
unconstitutional and to interpret provisions of ordinary laws enacted
by legislatures is called Judicial Review. Judiciary acts as a
guardian of the constitution. Judiciary protects the rights and
freedoms of the Indian citizens.

UNIVERSAL ADULT FRANCHISE
The constitution of India has introduced universal adult franchise.
All the adults above the age of 18 years, irrespective of their castes,
colour and or sex are entitled to participate in the election.
7.2 ORGANISATION OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
7.2.1 PRESIDENT
The President is the first citizen of India. He is the Head of the
State. Dr. A.P.J.Abdul Kalam is the present President of India.
Qualifications for election as President
1. He should be a citizen of India.
2. He must have completed the age of 35 years.
3. He should be qualified to become the member of the Lok
Sabha.
4. He should not hold any office of profit under the
government.
Election of President
The President is elected by members of an electoral college
consisting of:-
1. The elected members of both Houses of Parliament.
2. The elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of
the States.
The election of the President of India is in accordance with
the system of proportional representation by means of single
transferable vote. The system of secret ballot is adopted for the
election of the President.
The President of India is elected for a period of five years.
He is eligible for re-election for a second term.
Procedure for Impeachment of the President
The President of India can be removed from office by
impeachment for violation of the constitution. Impeachment has
to be approved by both the House of Parliament. One fourth of the
total members of a House can give notice at least fourteen days in
advance of their intention to impeach the President. The charges,
Organisational S tructure of
Union G overnment
Pre sident
Vice P re s id ent
P rim e M inister
C ab inet
Pa rliam en t
(N om in al E xecutiv e)
(R e a l E xecutive )
L o k S abha R ajy a S abh a
C om m ittee s o f
R ajy a S abh a
C om m ittee s o f
L o k S abha
Jo in t C om m ittee s o f
b o th th e H ou ses
if approved by two-thirds majority will be referred to the other House
for investigation. If the investigating House also approves the charges
with two-thirds majority, the President shall stand impeached and will
vacate his office, on the date on which such a resolution is passed.
Powers of the President of India
1. Executive Powers
The executive power of the Union is vested in the President
and is exercised by him either directly or through officers
subordinate to him in accordance with the constitution. There is a
Council of Ministers to aid and advise the President in the exercise
of his functions. All executive powers of the Union government
are exercised in the name of President.
The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and on
the advice of the Prime Minister other Ministers of the Union are
appointed by the President. The President appoints the Attorney -
General of India, Comptroller and Auditor - General of India,
Ambassadors, High Commissioners and other diplomatic
representatives to foreign countries, the Chief Justice and other
Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts, Governors of
States, Lt. Governors, Chairman and members of the Union Public
Service Commission, Election Commission. The President is the
Supreme Commander of the Armed forces. He appoints the Chief
of Staff of Army, Navy and the Air Force.
The President has the power to remove the Ministers on
the advice of the Prime Minister. He can remove the Chairman or
a member of the Union Public Service Commission only on the
basis of the report of the Supreme Court. He can remove a Judge
of the Supreme Court or the Election Commissioner only on the
basis of decisions taken by the Parliament by a special majority in
both the Houses.

It may be observed that though formally all the executive powers
are vested in the President, he exercises them on the advice of the
Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers. Earlier it was not obligatory
for the President to accept this advice but the Forty-Second
Amendment Act, 1976 made it obligatory for the President to exercise
his functions in accordance with the advice of the Council of Ministers.
However, under the Forty-Fourth Amendment Act, 1978 the President
has been authorised to refer back the matter to the Council of Ministers
for reconsideration. But if the Council of Ministers after such
reconsideration tenders any advice to the President, the President has
to abide by the same.
2. Legislative Powers
The President of India summons the Parliament atleast twice a
year. President prorogues or terminates the sessions of both or any of
the Houses of Parliament. He is empowered to dissolve the Lok Sabha.
The President nominates twelve members to the Rajya Sabha,
from among the distinguished persons in the field of art, science, literature
and social service. He can also nominate not more than two members
to the Lok Sabha from among the Anglo-Indian Community if in his
opinion that community is not adequately represented therein.
President addresses the Parliament. He may address the jointsitting
of both the Houses or any of its Houses separately. He can
convene a joint sitting of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha to resolve
the dispute if any.
No bill passed by the Parliament can become a law, without
the assent or approval of the President. The President is empowered
to issue an ordinance when the Parliament is not in session.
3. Financial Powers
No money bill can be introduced in the Parliament without the
recommendation of the President. The constitution of India places the
Contingency Fund of India at the disposal of the President who is
authorized to make advances out of it to meet the unforeseen expenditure
pending its final authorization by the Parliament. Every five year, the
President appoints a Finance Commission.
4. Judicial Powers
The President has the power to grant pardon, reprieve or
remission of punishment. He has the right to seek advice of the
Supreme Court on a matter involving constitution and law.
5. Emergency Powers
The President of India is vested with emergency powers.
They are as follows:-
(a) emergency due to war or external aggression or armed
rebellion (Article : 352)
(b) emergency due to failure of constitutional machinery
in States (Article : 356)
(c) financial emergency. (Article : 360)
Vice - President of India
The Vice-President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of
the Rajya Sabha. In the event of the occurrence of any vacancy in
the office of the President by reason of his death, resignation or
removal, or otherwise, the Vice-President acts as the President until
the date on which a new President takes charge. When the President
is unable to discharge his functions owing to absence, illness or
any other cause, the Vice-President shall discharge his functions
until the date on which the President resumes his duties.
Qualifications
1. He should be a citizen of India
2. He must have completed the age of 35 years
3. He should possess the qualifications to become the
member of the Rajya Sabha.
4. He should not hold any office of profit under the
government.
Election of the Vice - President
The Vice - President of India is elected by the members of
an electoral college consisting of the members of both Houses of
Parliament.
Term of Office of Vice-President
The Vice - President of India is elected for a period of five
years. He is eligible for re-election. The Vice-President may resign
before the expiry of his term. Parliament can remove him from
office. At least fourteen days notice is necessary for this purpose.
If Rajya Sabha passes a resolution for removal of Vice-President
by a majority of its total membership and if Lok Sabha also agrees
to it, the Vice-President shall be removed from office.
As the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha, the Vice-President
presides over the meetings of the House. As the Presiding Officer,
the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha is the unchallenged guardian of
the prestige and dignity of the House. He is also the principle
spokesman of the House and represents the collective voice to the
outside world. He ensures that the proceedings of the House are
conducted in accordance with the relevant constitutional provisions,
roles, practices and conventions and that decorum is maintained
in the House.
The Office of the Vice-President is one of the unique
features of the constitution of India. It has no exact parallel in the
countries of other democratic constitutions of the world.
7.2.2 PRIME MINISTER
The Prime Minister is the Head of the Government. He is the
real executive. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President. The
President invites the leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha to
become the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister of India is
1. Leader of the majority party
2. Leader of the Cabinet
3. Leader of the Parliament
4. Link between the President and Council of Ministers
5. Link between the President and Parliament
6. The Chief Spokesman of the Nation
7. Responsible for running the administration of the country
8. Responsible for conduct of international relations.
The Prime Minister is described as the ‘Keystone of the
Cabinet Arch’ and ‘First among equals’. Professor Harold J.
Laski called him ‘The pivot of the whole system of Government’.
Sir Ivor Jennings described him as ‘The Sun around which the
planets revolve’.
Features of Cabinet
In the parliamentary government, the cabinet is described
as the committee of parliament. The cabinet brings together the
executive and legislative branches. Bagehot defines cabinet as a
hyphen that joins, the buckle that binds the executive and legislative
departments together. The features of cabinet are as follows:-
1. Cabinet real executive
2. Real executive drawn from parliament
3. Link between the real executive and the legislature
4. Leadership of the Prime Minister
121 122
5. Political homogeneity
6. Cabinet responsible to the legislature
7. Executive subordinate to the legislature
8. Party government
9. Ministerial individual and collective responsibility
10. Opposition party
11. Cabinet secrecy.
Functions of Cabinet:
1. Policy Determining Function
The Cabinet is a deliberative and policy formulating body. It
discusses and decides all sorts of national and international problems
confronting the country.
2. Supreme Control of the National Executive:
The Cabinet is the supreme national executive. It superintends,
supervises and directs the work of the civil servants all over the Union.
3. The Cabinet as a Co-ordinator
The function of the Cabinet is to co-ordinate and guide the
functions of the several ministers or Departments of Government.
4. Control Over Finance
The Cabinet is responsible for the whole expenditure of
the State and for raising necessary revenues to meet it.
5. Control Over Appointments
Appointments do not normally come before the Cabinet
for discussion. But all major appointments as those of Governors,
Ambassadors and other appointments to key positions must be
mentioned in the Cabinet before they are made public.
7.2.3 COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
There are two categories of members in the Council of Ministers.
They are Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State. The Cabinet is
comparatively a smaller body and the most powerful organ of the
government. The Cabinet Ministers are incharge of important portfolios
and form the inner circle of the Council of Ministers. They attend the
meetings of the Cabinet and take the major policy decisions. Ministers
of State come next to the Cabinet Ministers. There are some ministers
of State who hold independent charge of the department and others
assist the Cabinet Ministers. Ministers of State cannot attend the Cabinet
meetings except when invited or items of business pertaining to their
departments are discussed in the meetings.
COMPOSITION OF UNION MINISTRY
PRIME M INISTER
CABINET M INISTERS
MINISTERS O F STATE MINISTERS O F STATE
(with independen t charge) (Attached with C ab inet M in isters)
The Prime Minister’s Office (PMO)
The PMO provides secretarial assistance to the Prime Minister.
It is headed by the Principal Secretary to Prime Minister. The PMO
includes the anti-corruption unit and the public wing dealing with
grievances.
The subject-matter of files required to be submitted to the Prime
Minister depends on whether he is holding direct charge of the Ministry
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or whether there is a Cabinet Minister or Minister of State (Independent
Charge) in charge of the Ministry.
In the case of the latter, most matters are dealt with by the
Cabinet Minister / Minister of State-in-charge. Only important policy
issues, which the Minister concerned feels should be submitted to the
Prime Minister for orders or information, are received in the PMO.
In cases where the Prime Minister is the Minister-in-charge,
matters requiring Ministerial approval not delegated to the Minister of
State / Deputy Minister, if any, are submitted for orders. The Prime
Minister has traditionally been the Minister-in-charge of the Departments
of Space, Atomic Energy, and Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances
and Pensions.
Since the Prime Minister is Chairman of the Planning
Commission, relevant files are forwarded to the PMO for his
comments and clearance.
Some of the important matters that require the Prime
Minister’s personal attention include the following:
(a) Important defence-related issues;
(b) All important policy issues;
(c) All important decisions relating to the Cabinet
Secretariat;
(d) Appointments to State Administrative Tribunals and
the Central Administrative Tribunal, UPSC, Election
Commission, Appointment of members of statutory/
constitutional Committees, Commissions attached to
various Ministries;
(e) All policy matters relating to the administration of the
Civil Services and administrative reforms;
7.2.4 SPEAKER
The constitution provides for a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker
for the Lok Sabha and a Chairman and a Deputy Chairman for the
Rajya Sabha. The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker are chosen by
the Lok Sabha from among its members. In the absence of the Speaker
in the House, the Deputy Speaker discharges the functions of the
Speaker.
Generally speaking, the position of the Speaker in India more
or less corresponds to that of the Speaker of the House of Commons.
His office is one of prestige and authority. He is the head of Lok Sabha.
The smooth and orderly conduct of the business of the House is primarily
his responsibility. Within the House and in all maters connected with
the House, his word is final. He does not vote in the House except
when there is an equality of votes
Whenever, in the event of final disagreement between the
Houses on a legislative measure a joint sitting is called, he presides
over such a joint sitting and all the rules of procedure in such a
sitting operate under his directions and orders.
The Speaker or Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha vacates his
office if he ceases to be a member of the House, he can resign by
writing to the Deputy Speaker/Speaker and he can be removed by
a resolution of the House, with 14 days’ notice, passed by a majority
of all the then members of the House. Irrespective of the dissolution
of the House, the Speaker, however, continues in office until
immediately before the first sitting of the new House.
7.2.5 Parliament – Rajya Sabha
It consists of not more than 250 members. Out of these, 12
are nominated by the President for their special knowledge or
practical experience in the fields of literature, science, art and social
service. The remaining 238 seats are allocated to various States
and Union Territories. The number of seats allocated varies from
State to State in proportion to their population. Elections to the
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Rajya Sabha are indirect. Members representing states are elected by
elected members of legislative assemblies of the states in accordance
with the system of proportional representation by means of single
transferable vote and those representing Union Territories are chosen
in such a manner as Parliament may by law prescribe. The Rajya Sabha
is not subject to dissolution. Its members are elected for a period of 6
years and one-third of its members retire on expiry of every second
year.
The Vice-President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of the
Rajya Sabha. In addition, the House elects a Deputy Chairman from
among its members. The Deputy Chairman presides over the meeting
of the House in the absence of the Vice-President.
7.2.6 Parliament-Lok Sabha
According to the constitution, the strength of Lok Sabha should
not be more than 552 members - 530 members to represent States, 20
to represent Union Territories and not more than 2 members of Anglo-
Indian Community to be nominated by the President, if in his opinion,
that community is not adequately represented in the House. The number
of members of each State to be elected is determined on the basis of
the population. At present, the Lok Sabha consists of 545 members.
Term of the Lok Sabha, unless dissolved is five years. However
while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation, this period may be
extended by Parliament by law for a period not exceeding one year at
a time and not exceeding, in any case, beyond a period of six months
after the Proclamation has ceased to operate.
The Presiding Officer of the Lok Sabha is the Speaker. He is
elected by the House at its first meeting from among its own members.
In addition, the House also elects a Deputy Speaker who discharges
the duties of the Speaker during his absence or leave.
In order to be chosen as a member of Parliament, a person
must be a citizen of India and not less than 30 years of age in case
of the Rajya Sabha and not less than 25 years of age in case of the
Lok Sabha. Additional qualifications may be prescribed by
Parliament by law. A person can become a member of the Lok Sabha
from any of the constituencies in the country. For the membership of
the Rajya Sabha, he should be a registered voter in the State he
represents.
Sessions of Parliament
According to the constitution, the Parliament has at least two
sessions every year. The President summons the Parliament in a manner
that the time gap between two sessions is not more than six months. In
practice, the Parliament normally meets three times a year. These
sessions are called:
(a) Budget Session which is normally summoned in February
(b) Monsoon Session which ordinarily meets in July and
(c) Winter Session, which commences in November.
In the first session of the year i.e. Budget Session, the President
addresses both the Houses of Parliament assembled together. In this
session besides other work, the Railway Budget and the General Budget
are also discussed and adopted.
Functions of Parliament
1. Parliament of India has the functions of legislation
2. Overseeing of administration
3. Passing of budget
4. Ventilation of public grievances
5. Discussion of various subjects like development plans,
international relations and national policies.
Distribution of powers between the Union and States,
followed in the constitution, emphasizes in many ways general
predominance of Parliament in legislative field. Apart from widerange
of subjects even in normal times Parliament can, under certain
circumstances, assume legislative power, a subject falling within the
sphere exclusively reserved for the States. Parliament is also vested
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be introduced in Lok Sabha. Also it is Lok Sabha which
grants the money for running the administration of the
country.
4. Rajya Sabha has special powers to declare that it is
necessary and expedient in the national interest that
Parliament may make laws with respect to a matter in
the State List or to create by law one or more all-India
services common to the Union and the States.
7.2.7 Supreme Court
For the entire republic of India, there is one unified judicial
system – one hierarchy of courts – with the Supreme Court as the
highest or the Apex Court and as the only arbiter in nature of
relations between the union and the states.
The Supreme Court of India consists of a Chief Justice and
25 other Judges. The Chief Justice and the Judges are appointed
by the President in consultation with such of the Judges of the
Supreme Court and the High Courts in the States.
According to the constitution a person is eligible for
appointment as Judge of the Supreme Court only if:
1. He is a citizen of India
2. He has been for at least five years a Judge of a High
Court or of two or more such Courts in succession, or
3. He has been for at least ten years an advocate of a
High Court or of two or more such Courts in succession
or
4. He is, in the opinion of the President, a distinguished
jurist.
The judges of the Supreme Court hold office until they
attain the age of 65 years.
The Supreme Court has its permanent seat in Delhi. However,
with powers to impeach President and to remove judges of Supreme
Court and High Court, Chief Election Commissioner and Comptroller
and Auditor-General in accordance with the procedure laid down in
the constitution.
All legislations require consent of both Houses of Parliament.
In case of money bills, however the will of the Lok Sabha prevails.
Money Bills can be delayed by the Rajya Sabha only for 14 days.
Delegated legislation is also subject to review and control by Parliament.
Besides power to legislate, the constitution vests in Parliament power
to initiate amendment of the constitution. Article 368 deals with the
power of the Parliament to amend the constitution and the procedure
there of.
The Parliament exercises control over the executive through
asking questions and supplementary questions, moving motions
of adjournment, discussing and passing resolutions, discussing and
passing censure motion or vote of no-confidence.
Functions of Parliament are not only varied in nature, but
considerable in volume. Time at its disposal is limited. It can
therefore, give close consideration to all legislative and other maters
that come up before it. A good deal of business is, therefore,
transacted in Committees.
Difference between Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha
1. Members of Lok Sabha are directly elected by the people
(eligible voters). Members of Rajya Sabha are elected by
the elected members of State Legislative Assemblies in
accordance -with the system of proportional representation
by means of single transferable vote.
2. The normal life of every Lok Sabha is 5 years only while
Rajya Sabha is a permanent body.
3. Lok Sabha is the House to which the Council of Ministers
is responsible under the constitution. Money Bills can only
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the court can sit at such other place or places which may be decided by
the Chief Justice of India with the approval of the President of India.
Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court
1. Original Jurisdiction
The constitution of India vests the Supreme Court with
original and exclusive jurisdiction in any dispute:
(a) between the Government of India and one or more
states, or
(b) between the Government of India and any State or
States on one side and one or more other States on the
other, or
(c) between two or more States,
2. Appellate jurisdiction
The Supreme Court is the final appellate Court in the
country. The Supreme Court hears appeals against the judgements
of the High Courts of States in both civil and criminal cases. Such
a case can be brought before the Supreme Court only if the High
Court certifies that the case involves a substantial question of law
as to the interpretation of the constitution.
Even if the certificate is not granted by the High Court, the
Supreme Court has the right to grant special leave to appeal from
any judgement, decree, determination, sentence or order in any
case or matter passed or made by any Court or tribunals in the
territory of India.
In the civil cases an appeal can be made to the Supreme
Court against the judgement of the High Court.
In the criminal cases an appeal against the judgement of
final order or sentence in a criminal proceeding of a High Court in the
territory of India can be taken to the Supreme Court.
3. Advisory Jurisdiction
The constitution confers on the President the power to refer to
the Supreme Court any question of law or fact which in his opinion is of
public importance.
4. Writ Jurisdiction
Article 32 is the soul and heart of the constitution, because, it
safeguards the rights, liberty and privileges of every citizen of India in
terms of writs. As such, the Supreme Court has the writ Jurisdiction.
There are five writs, namely Habeas corpus, Mandamus, prohibition,
certiorari and Quo-warranto with the following explanations.
1. Habeas corpus: The words Habeas corpus literally mean
to have body’. A writ of habeas corpus is in the nature of an order
calling upon the person who has been detained another to produce
the latter before the court, in order to let court know on what ground
he has been confined and set him free if there is no legal justification
from the imprisonment. This is a very powerful safeguard to the
subject against arbitrary acts not only of private individuals but
also of the executive.
2. Mandamus: Mandamus literally means a command. It
demands some activity on the party of the body or person to whom
it is addressed. In short, it commands the person to whom it is
addressed. In short, it commands the person to whom it is addressed
to perform some public or quasi-public legal duty which he has
refused to perform and the performance of which can not be
enforced by any other adequate legal remedy. The writ is also
available against the subordinate courts or other judicial bodies
when they have refused to exercise their jurisdiction and thus to
perform their duty.
3. Prohibition: This writ is issued by the Supreme Court or
High Court to an subordinate court forbidding the latter to continue
proceedings therein in excess of its jurisdiction or to usurp a jurisdiction
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with which it is not legally vested. In other words, the object of the writ
is to compel subordinate courts to keep themselves within the limits of
their jurisdiction. The writ of prohibition differs from the writ of mandamus
in the following ways.
(a) Mandamus commands activity while prohibition commands
inactivity, and
(b) Mandamus is available not only against judicial authorities
but also against administrative authorities while prohibition
as well as certiorari are issued against judicial or quasijudicial
authorities.
4. Certiorari:- Strictly speaking, while prohibition is available
at an earlier stage, certiorari is available at a later stage, on similar
grounds. The object of both is to secure that the jurisdiction of an
subordinate court or tribunal is properly exercised and that it does not
usurp the jurisdiction which it does not possess.
5. Quo-warranto:- Quo-warranto is a writ proceeding
whereby the court enquires into the legality of the claim which a
party asserts to a public office, and to oust him from its enjoyment
it the claim be not well founded. The necessary conditions for the
issue of a writ of quo-warranto are following.
(a) The office must be public and it must be created by a
statute or by the constitution itself.
(b) The office must be a substantive one and not merely
the function or employment of a servant at the will
and during the pleasure of another. and
(c) There has been a contravention of the constitution or a
statute or statutory instrument, in appointing such
person to that office.
Thus, quo-warranto is not only an important writ but also a
very powerful instrument for safeguarding against the usurption of public
offices.
5. Miscellaneous Jurisdiction
(a) The Supreme Court is a court of record and enjoys all the
powers of such a court including the power to punish for
contempt of itself.
(b) The law declared by Supreme Court is binding on all courts
within the territory of India.
(c) The Supreme Court is authorised to make rules for regulating
generally the practice and procedure of the Court with the
approval of the President.
(d) The Supreme Court has complete control over its own
establishment.
Law Officers and the Central Law Agency
Attorney General
Article 76 of the constitution makes provision for the
appointment of a law officer the attorney general, by President of
India. It is his duty to give advice to the Government of India upon
legal matters and to perform such other duties of a legal character,
as may from time to time be referred or assigned to him by the
President and to discharge the functions conferred on him by or
under this constitution or any other law for the time being in force.
The Attorney General is the highest law officer in the
country and, in the performance of his duties, he has a right of
audience in all courts in the territory of India.
The Attorney General holds office during the pleasure of
the President and receives such remuneration as the President
determines from time to time. Apart from the Attorney General,
the other law officers are the Solicitor General of India.
7.2.8 Indian Political Parties
In the text book for the eleventh standard the origin, importance,
need for and the kinds of political parties have been narrated. There is
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also information relating to the machinery for conducting elections,
specially with reference to the conduct of general elections in India. In
this book details of national parties and some important regional parties
with reference to their organisation, ideologies and objectives are
described.
In general every political party national or regional is organised
vertically either from the top to the down or the vice versa. In other
words there is a hierarchical structure. Each party has a chairman, a
committee consisting of leading members to advice the party, secretaries
and treasurers. The political parties organise periodical conferences at
different levels in the country. These conferences are attended by the
rank and file of the party. They are utilised to mobilise in the first instance
funds for the party and secondly support from the general public. In
India all political parties follow more or less the same pattern.
The reason for the existence of several political parties in any
country generally is attributed to the differences to which the political
parties subscribe and also due to the differences in the methods adopted
for achieving their ideologies and goals. Ideologies are indispensable
for the existence of a political party. The same is true of the goals.
These two enable a political party to function as a party.
The term ideology was coined by the French scholar Tracy
(1754-1836). Ideology refers to a set of beliefs, convictions and
ideals of the people. Ideology enables to formulate a theory of
government and the programme of political action. Ideology is
action oriented unlike political theory and political philosophy.
Political ideology is a programme for action. In these lines there
are some political ideologies. Among them, nationalism, democracy,
socialism, secularism, liberalism, communism and capitalism are
important. The political parties exist to achieve their objectives and
programmes.
India is a vast country with a huge population. There are
differences among the people with reference to the culture, religion,
language, economic attainments and social distinctions. In other
words the population is diverse in nature and therefore there cannot
be uniformity about anything. This applies to the party system also.
There are national and regional parties in this country. In the next
few pages an account of the different political parties of India is
given.
National Parties
The Indian National Congress
The Indian National Congress is the oldest and a dominant
political party. It was founded on December 28, 1885 by A.O.
Hume. The history of the Congress Party is the history of the
freedom struggle. It began more as a national movement than as a
political party. People from all quarters rallied under the Congress
Party to realise the common goal of political independence. It was
a truly representative body of the people. Hence, the British handed
over the country and power to the Congress on August 15, 1947.
Since then the Congress has been in power for about 50 years,
except for two short spells, at the centre. Until 1967 it was in power
in almost all the States in India. The memorable leaders of the
Congress Party are Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira
Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi, C. Rajagopalachari, K. Kamaraj, P.V.
Narasimha Rao and many others. The Indian National Congress
met with many splits. Today it is known as Congress(I). Its election
symbol is hand.
The Organisation of the Congress
The present constitution of the congress party was designed at
its Nagpur Session of 1920. According to it,
1. the highest body in the Congress hierarchy is the All India
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Congress Committee. Its total membership is about 400.
It holds annual and special sessions of the Congress. It
has wide powers.
2. The next body is the congress Working Committee.
Its members are elected in the All India Congress
Committee itself. This body is like a cabinet. The senior
most congressmen are normally elected to this body.
3. There is a special body known as the Parliamentary
Board. It consists of six members, including the
Congress President.
4. Below the Congress Working committee is the Pradesh
Congress committee one each for a state. This body
has its own president and other office bearers.
5. Below the Pradesh Congress Committee are the District
Congress Committees, one each for a district. Then
there are committees subordinate to it and
6. The Mandal Congress Committees. Any person of 18
years or more can become a primary member of the
Congress.
Ideology of the Congress Party
Before independence, the chief aim of the Congress was to
attain national freedom. After independence, however, a change
occurred in the policy and programme of the Congress. The
objective of establishing a classless and democratic society was
declared in 1955. For this purpose, a resolution on the “socialistic
pattern of society” was adopted at the Avadi Session of the Congress
Party. The Congress party adopted many other policies and
programmes, suitable to the changing needs of the country.
However in the 1990’s radical changes took place in the
ideology of the congress party. The government under the leadership
of Prime Minister Shri P.V. Narashima Rao initiated some economic
reforms. These and other developments did not attach much
importance to the socialistic pattern of society and rigorous policies
with regard to the issue of licence, permit and imposition of taxes.
In short the country was slowly but steadily moving towards what
is popularly known as privatisation, liberalisation and globalisation.
Whichever party after the exit of the congress party in 1996 came
to power had to follow the same. The present government headed
by Dr. Manmohan Singh since May 2004 has to continue the liberal
economic policies. Inspite of these changes, development through
five year plans remains the method of the congress party and other
political party governments.
The congress party right from the time of independence
and Primeminister Shri Jawaharlal Nehru has been following a
policy of friendship with India’s neighbours. In regard to the super
powers such as the United States and the Soviet Union the congress
party government followed a policy which stressed neutrality and
non-alignment.
The Communist Party of India (CPI)
The Communist Party is the second oldest party in India. It
was founded in the year 1924. But soon after its formation, it was
banned by the British Indian Government. Consequently, most of
the Communist workers carried on their work through the Congress.
It remained an unlawful organisation till 1943 when the ban on it
was removed because the Communist Party supported the Second
World War and opposed the Quit India Movement of the Congress
in 1942. After independence, the Communist Party of India
consolidated its position. Ears of corn and sickle is the symbol of the
CPI.
Organisation and Ideology
The Communist Party of India is a party of the World
Communist movement. It has been recognised as a national party.
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However its influence is confined to the States of Kerala, West Bengal
and Tripura.
The Communist Party of India was formed in 1958 at its
Amritsar conference. The constitution of the party was changed to
give up the militant revolutionary ideology. Parliamentary
democracy was accepted as the method to attain the party goals.
The party structure, in theory, is based on democratic centralism.
Democratic centralism rests on the principles of central leader ship
based on intra-party democracy. Intra-party democracy means
freedom of debate within the party to check its action. As soon as
the leadership decides on a programme after debate, the members
preserve discipline and function according to the guidelines.
The primary unit of the party is called the Branch. It is
organised on the basis of village panchayat, municipal ward,
industry etc. Its functions are to sell the party literature, collect
membership etc. Above the Branch are the Local Council, District
Council, State Council and National Council. The National Council
performs every important function such as the election of the
Central Executive Committee, convening of the party congress,
and enforcing the party constitution. the Central Executive
Committee can set up the necessary bodies to handle its work. At
the top are the Chairman and the General Secretary. This type of
party organisation prevents the rise of personality cult. It promotes
decentralisation of power and strengthens the democratic
functioning of the party. This oganisation enables the party to retain
its mass character.
The communist party of India follows the Marxist-Leninist
thought completely. At the same time, it believes in parliamentary
communism. It’s aim is to defeat the reactionary forces opposed to
people’s interest. It wants to transform the parliament from an organ
of bourgeois democracy into a real instrument of people’s will.
The Communist Party of India believes in the following policies
and programmes.
1. Nationalisation of Banks
2. Abolition of private foreign companies and Indian
monopolies
3. Expansion of the scope of public sector
4. State trading
5. Stoppage of foreign capital
6. Drastic agrarian reforms
7. A non-aligned foreign policy
8. Opposition to colonialism, imperialism, and apartheid
The Communist Party of India (Marxist)
The Communist Party of India was split in the year 1964.
The split was due to the schism in the Sino-Russian relations. The
communist leaders had held differences of opinion in their
evaluations of the economic and political situations prevailing in
the country. Further, one group of leaders desired to extend their
support to Nehru’s Government. But the other group of leaders
demanded tough opposition to the reactionary congress. Their
ideological differences reached a stage of no compromise. Finally,
the dissidents held a separate convention of Ten ally in July 1964.
They got separated from the Dange group. Leaders like Jyoti Basu,
E.M.S. Namboodripad and others formed a separate party, known
as the Communist Party of India (Marxist).
The organisation, major aims and policies of the CPI
(Marxist) resemble mostly to those of the CPI. The principles of
democracy socialism and inner party democracy are the bases to the
party’s structure form the Branch upwards the top. The branch is the
living link with masses. The CPI (Marxist) is convinced that India’s
revolutionary movement must follow its own line of action. It believes
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that neither Chinese nor the Russian model would suit India. The symbol
of the (Marxist) include a hammer, sickle and star.
Differences in the ideologies of the CPI and CPI (Marxist)
Besides certain common ideals and programmes, the CPI and
the CPI (Marxist) have the following ideological differences.
1. The CPI (Marxist) considers that revolution could be brought
about in India only by the leaders of the working class. But the CPI
holds that social transformation can be achieved through close alliance
with other democratic forces.
2. CPI (Marxist) believes in dislodging the existing state and
replacing it with a State of People’s Democracy led by the working
class. The CPI supports the idea of forming a national democratic front.
It does not favour the dislodging to the existing governmental system. It
holds that in course of time the reactionary forces will be eliminated
and power may pass into the hands of the party.
3. The CPI (Marxist) believes that the ruling classes would
never give up power voluntarily. Hence it wants to employ force
out of necessity. But the CPI holds faith in peaceful means. Its aim
is to transform the Parliament into a genuine instrument of people’s
will.
Bharatiya Janatha Party (BJP)
The old Bharatiya Jan Sangh is the precursor of the
Bharatiya Janatha Party. The origin of the Jan Sang is linked with
the origin of Hindu nationalism in the 19th Century. In 1875 Swami
Dayanand Saraswati founded the ‘Arya Samaj’. It created a new spirit
among the North Indian Hindus. It also provided impetus to the
movement of Hindu revivalism. The new ideas later formed the
fundamental tenets of the Hindu Mahasabha and the Jan Sang. In 1925,
Keshav Hedgewar formed Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sang (RSS) as a
cultural organisation. Its aim was to regenerate the Hindu Society.
Shyama Prasad Mukherjee formed the Jan Sang in the year 1951.
However, the Jan Sang secured support of the members of the Hindu
Maha Sabha and the RSS. From 1952 to 1971 the party made steady
progress.
In March 1977, the Lok Sabha Elections were held. The Jan
Sang, the Congress (O), the Congress for Democracy, Bharatiya Lok
Dal and the Socialist Party came under one banner of the Janata Party.
The Janata Party Won 270 seats and formed the Government with
Morarji Desai as Prime Minister. The Jan Sang leaders like A.B.
Vajpayee became the cabinet ministers. With the dismantling of Janata
Party in 1980, the Jan Sang leaders recognised the party and renamed
it as Bharatiya Janata Party. The words “Jan Sang” were dropped.
Since then the BJP is maintaining this individual identity. Under the
leadership of Thiru A.B. Vajpayee and Thiru L.K. Advani it became a
national party. It formed government at the Centre with other parties in
1998. Its organisation is democratic as in the case of the Congress.
Lotus is the symbol of the BJP.
Ideological Principles of the BJP
1. The BJP stands for democracy as a form of government
and way of life. It wishes to uphold “political, economic and social
democracy”.
2. It guarantees equality of opportunity and liberty to all
citizens so as to build up a powerful nation.
3. It emphasises the importance of national solidarity and
integration. It favours political and economic decentralisation.
4. The BJP stands for swadeshi economics. However it
is by sheer circumstances of the time forced to adopt liberal economic
policies since 1991. It upholds the principle of nationalisation of basic
and defence industries. It does not favour the state trading.
5. In foreign policy, the BJP is opposed to the Congress. It
feels that “the Congress has sacrificed the interests of the nation in the
name of non-alignment”. It emphasises the need to develop enlightened
self-interest. Foreign policy must be based on reciprocity and mutual
interest.
6. Recently the BJP has announced that corruption free public
life, security and economic nationalism as its major aims.
Janata Dal
The Janata Dal was formed in October 1988. Its notable leaders
are V.P. Singh, Ramakrishna Hegde, S.R. Bommai and Laloo Prasad
Yadav.
The Janata Dal is democratic in Character. Party organisation
is similar to the Old Janata Party. Anybody who believes in the
programmes and policies of the Janata Dal can become a member of
the party. But active members in the Janata Dal must sign an oath of
loyalty to the party. The executive body of the Janata Dal is the Working
Committee. There are basic units from which the higher Committees
are elected. For any office of the party only an active member can
contest the election. There are Committees at Block, District, Provincial
and National levels.
Ideological principles of the Janata Dal
The following are some of the important ideological contents
of the Janata Dal.
The Janata Dal is dedicated to the values and ideals of Gandhiji.
It desires to build up a democratic and socialist state in India. The party
is wedded to the ideals of freedom and secular democracy. The Janata
Dal wants to free the people from the bondage of fear. It stands for
value-based politics and eradication of corruption. Its democratic values
include (1) Electoral reforms, (2) Re-establishment of rule of law, (3)
Protection of the fundamental rights, (4) Independence of judiciary, (5)
Protection of freedom of the people, (6) Grassroot democracy, (7) A
strong federal country with more powers to the states, (8) social political
and economic justice.
The economic principles of the Janata Dal are based on the
Gandhian ideology. It lays emphasis on primacy of agriculture, cottage
and small-scale industries. It has accepted the ideals of right to work,
abolition of unemployment, workers’ participation in the industry, a
national income, wages and prices policy and reduction in economic
inequalities. It believes in the industrial self-reliance.
With respect to foreign policy, the Janata Dal does not differ
much from the Congress. It welcomes foreign investments but not
at the cost of our own industry.
Regional Parties
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
Regionalism in Tamilnadu began to be felt since 1916. It
was due to the dominance of the brahmin community in the
erstwhile Madras presidency. They enjoyed several privileges which
were not available to the majority of the population. It all started
with the establishment of a Dravidian Association by Thiru Natesa
Mudaliar and others in 1912. Subsequently it was known as the
Justice Party. It was dravidian in its outlook and its objectives.
From this party the Dravida Kazhagam under the leadership of
Periyar Ramaswamy was founded in 1944. It attracted the eminent
leader Thiru C.N. Annadurai to its fold. Dravida Kazhagam was a
social reform movement and not a political party. As time passed
on and immediately after independence differences brokeout
between Thiru C.N. Annadurai and Periyar Thiru E.V. Ramaswamy
and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) was formed by Annadurai
on 17th September 1949. From 1949 to 1957 the DMK served the
people only as a social organisation. The DMK had the aim of
establishing a separate Dravidanadu, comprising the four southern states.
But Anna abandoned this ideology on 23rd October 1963 as then the
constitution was amended to bar separation. This was the turning point
in the history of the DMK. Rising sun is its symbol.
The party was turned into a political party when it contested in
the election for the first time in 1957. It secured only a few seats in the
143 144
elections. However under the able guidance of Thiru C.N. Annadurai
and popular support this party emerged victorious in the fourth general
election in 1967 to the Tamilnadu State Assembly and formed
government under the Chief-Ministership of Thiru C.N. Annadurai. Since
then until now the dravidian parties only win in the elections and form
government. The congress could not come to power. Since then it has
been contesting in all general elections to the State Assembly as well as
to the national parliament. After the death of Thiru C.N. Annadurai on
3rd February 1969, Thiru M. Karunanidhi became its leader. Under
his leadership the party won in assembly elections and formed the
government also.
Emergence of AIADMK
Owing to differences Thiru M. Karunanidhi as party President
expelled Thiru. M.G. Ramachandran from the primary membership of
the DMK in 1972. Subsequently MGR launched his own party on
18th October 1972 and named it as Anna Dravida Munnetra
Kazhagam. After some time on 12th September 1976 it was renamed
as All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. MGR declared that
his party will follow the principles and policies pursued by Thiru C.N.
Annadurai. From the beginning to the present the party is popular with
the people of Tamilnadu. Though MGR died in December 1987 the
party continued to maintain its strength and support under the present
leadership of Selvi J. Jayalalithaa.
The basic ideology of the AIADMK is “Annaism”. The essence
of Annaism is mainly the removal of poverty and untouchability. The
other contents of the ideology are self respect, rationalism, socialism
and social service. The party also believed in achieving its objectives
through participation in elections to the state legislature and the national
parliament.
The first time the AIADMK faced an election to the state
assembly was during May 1973 in Dindigul parliamentary
constituency. It won the by-election by polling 52% of the total
votes polled. The DMK came third after Congress (O) of Thiru
Kamaraj. This election was probably just an indication of a turning
point in the electoral fortunes of the major Tamilnadu political
parties.
Telugu Desam
It is like the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam a regional
political party which was founded by Thiru N.T. Rama Rao on
29th March 1982. Thiru N.T. Rama Rao was a charismatic leader
who had acted in films in different roles. Particularly he played in
cinema as divine hero. As a result he was demistified and worshiped
by people as God on earth. Soon this party contested in the elections
to the state assembly and it won in the assembly elections in 1983,
1985 and 1994. As chief minister he had served the people of
Andhra to help eradicate poverty and raise their living standards.
He was succeeded by his son-in-law Thiru. N. Chandrababu Naidu
in 1995. He took several steps to make Andhra Pradesh a forward
state. His contribution to the development of information
technology was so great that the whole of India turned to him for
model and guidance. He and his party extended from outside
support to the Government formed at the centre by
Thiru. A.B. Vajpayee belonging to the National Democratic Alliance
which was unseated from power in the 2004 general elections to the
Lok Sabha. During the same time elections were also held to the Andhra
Pradesh state assembly in which the Telugu Desam party was defeated
in the election. Indian National congress emerged victorious and formed
the government in May 2004.
Aims and Objectives of Telugu Desam Party
The party stood for a fair and just relationship between the
centre and the state. It did not want any distortion in the aims and
objectives of programmes designed for well being of the people. It
desired to bring about changes in the financial arrangement between
the centre and the state. The party favoured the involvement of
states in the planning process which could ensure real federalism. The
party suggested for extensive electoral reforms to strengthen the
democratic system in the country. For this it suggested to ban defection
of elected representative to other parties, restructuring of the election
commission and make it a multi member body and to remove evils in
the election especially the influence of money power. It suggested state
funding of expenditure of candidates who contested in the elections.
Akali Dal: It is a religious cum political party. It was formerly
led by Master Tara Singh. This party demanded a Punjabi speaking
state and Punjabi in Gurmukhi script as the official language of the Punjab
state. The Punjabi suba of the conception of the Akali party came into
existence as a result of the reorganisation of the state of Punjab into
Punjabi-speaking Punjab and the Hindi speaking state of Haryana in
1966.
Like other regional parties of significant following the Akali Dal
also contested in the elections since 1967. This party in alliance with
such parties like Bharatiya Janata Sangh or Janata Party or Bharatiya
Janata Party formed governments and guided the destiny of Punjab.
The demands of the party mainly are Chandigarh should be
handed over to Punjab and be made as its capital. There should be a
just and honourable agreement between Punjab and Haryana for the
distribution of the waters of rivers Ravi and Beas. And justice should
be done to Punjab keeping with the traditional martial qualities of the
Sikhs. There should be equitable share of strength for the Sikhs in the
Indian army. The other minor demands of the Akalidal are
1. Amirtsar should be given the same status as Vatican city (Rome) and declared a holy city.
2. Permission to carry kirpans by the sikhs on domestic flights of Indian Airline.
3. Declaration of Punjabi as the second language in Haryana.
4. Lastly transfer of management of the Bhakra dam to Punjab.
It should be noted that the Akali politics was at its peak in the
early 1980’s. It upset many a calculations of the government of India
relating to the governments of Punjab. There are still several unresolved
demands of the Sikhs.
The other regional political parties worth the name for their
significant contribution to their respective areas are, Assam Gana
Thantra Parishad in Assam and National Conference in Kashmir
and the Plebiscite Front in Kashmir.

Conclusion: In what has been given above with reference
to national and regional political parties is just a description of the
organisation and the objectives of those parties only.
How and in what circumstances these parties captured
political power finally and what they achieved have not been given.
For more details please refer to such books which give information
on party system given in the bibliography.

Exercise
Part A
I. Choose the correct answer
1. The constitution of India came into force on
(a) 26th January 1950 (b) 15th August 1947 (c) 26th January 1947 (d) 15th August 1945
2. Forty Second Amendment Act came into force in the year
(a) 1947 (b) 1976 (c) 1967 (d) 1950
3. Rajya Sabha consists of
(a) 220 members (b) 230 members (c) 250 members (d) 200 members
4. Lok Sabha consists of
(a) 552 members (b) 545 members (c) 500 members (d) 550 members

II. Fill in the blanks
5. The President of India is the ______ citizen of India.
6. The President of India is the Head of the ______
7. The Prime Minister of India is the Head of the ______
8. The Supreme Court of India consists of Chief Justice
and ______ Judges.
9. The Chief Justice of India and Judges of Supreme Court
are appointed by the ______

III. Match the following
10. Lok Sabha – 25 years
11. Rajya Sabha – 30 years
12. Vice President – 35 years

Part B
13. Describe the Gandhian Principles.
14. Write short notes on Council of Ministers.
15. What is the role of the Speaker?

Part C
16. What are the features and functions of Cabinet?
17. Explain the role of the Prime Minister of India.
18. Discuss the importance of regional parties.
19. Discuss the composition of the Lok Sabha.
20. What are the functions of Parliament?
21. Explain the Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of India.
22. Describe the objectives of Dravidian Political Parties.

Part D
23. Bring out the salient features of Indian constitution.
24. Write an essay on the powers and functions of the President of India.
25. Trace the growth of the Indian National Congress.