WAR OF INDIAN INDEPENDENCE

THE FIRST WAR OF INDIAN INDEPENDENCE - 1857

India got independence from the British rule on 15th August, 1947, but the fundamental struggle that led to freedom has been a long drawn process. The culmination of traditional opposition to the British rule came with the First War of Independence in 1857, in which millions of peasants, artisans and soldiers participated
The first hundred years of British rule in India from 1757 to 1857, were marked by the British victories and the rapid expansion of their dominion in India.

By the middle of the 19th century, the English rule in India was firmly established . The system of Subsidiary Alliance and the Doctrine of Lapse had extended the English territory to its natural limits. However, discontentment was growing within this apparent stability, which resulted in the revolt of 1857. This revolt has been called as the Sepoy Mutiny by the British Historians and as the first war of Indian Independence by Indian Historians. We will begin this lesson with this video clip. Enjoy!!

INTRODUCTION

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of sepoys of the British East India Company's army on 10 May, 1857, in the town of Meerut, and soon erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions largely in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, with the major hostilities confined to present-day Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, northern Madhya Pradesh, and the Delhi region. The rebellion posed a considerable threat to Company power in that region, and it was contained only with the fall of Gwalior on 20 June 1858. The rebellion is also known as India's First War of Independence, the Great Rebellion, the Indian Mutiny, the Revolt of 1857, the Uprising of 1857 and the Sepoy Mutiny.
The rebels, often considered freedom fighters by Indian nationalists, quickly captured large swathes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, including Delhi, where they installed the Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as Emperor of Hindustan. The Company response came rapidly as well: by September 1857, with help from fresh reinforcements, Delhi had been retaken.Nevertheless, it then took the better part of 1858 for the rebellion to be completely suppressed in Oudh.
Other regions of Company-controlled India—Bengal province, the Bombay Presidency, and the Madras Presidency—remained largely calm.In Punjab, only recently annexed by the East India Company, the Sikh princes backed the Company by providing both soldiers and support. The large princely states, Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as well as the smaller ones of Rajputana, by not joining the rebellion, served, in the Governor-General Lord Canning's words, as "breakwaters in a storm" for the Company.
In some regions, especially in Oudh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against European presence;however, although the rebel leaders, especially the Rani of Jhansi, became folk heroes in the burgeoning nationalist movement in India half a century later, they themselves "generated no coherent ideology or programme on which to build a new order."

Still, the rebellion proved to be an important watershed in Indian history; it led to the dissolution of the East India Company in 1858, and forced the British to reorganize the army, the financial system, and the administration in India.

India was thereafter directly governed by the British government —originally via the India Office and a cabinet-level Secretary of State for India—in the new British Raj, a system of governance that underwent several reforms prior to Indian independence in 1947

Beginning of the Uprising

• In 1856, the British authorities decided to replace the old fashioned musket (called, the ‘Brown Bess’) by the new ‘Enfield Rifle’. The cartridges to be used in the rifle were greased with fat. The loading process of the Enfield rifle involved bringing the cartridge to the mouth and biting off the top greased paper with the mouth.
• A rumor spread out, that the cartridges were greased with the fat of pigs and cows. Soldiers believed that, these cartridges were intentionally greased with animal fat to hurt their religious sentiments.
• The revolt first began at Barrackpore, when most of the Indian soldiers refused to use the greased cartridges. As a result, a Brahmin soldier of the 34th Native Infantry at Barrackpore, named Mangal Pandey led an attack on the adjunct of 34th Native Infantry on 29th March, 1857.
• After the incident, Mangal Pandey was arrested and hanged on 8th April, 1857. Within  a month of this incidence, uprisings started in Meerut, Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi and at many other places.

• Events at Meerut

  The mutiny started at Meerut on 10th May 1857. The occasion was the punishment of some sepoys for their refusal to use the greased cartridges. They broke open jails, murdered Europeans, burnt their houses and marched to Delhi. They seized the city and proclaimed the aged Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II as the Emperor of India.

  Events at Delhi

  After reaching Delhi, they killed many British soldiers and surrounded the entire city. The loss Delhi, lowered the respect of the British army. So, in order to achieve their respect again, Sir John Nicholson besieged Delhi with the help of loyal Sikh soldiers. In the end, the British surmounted Delhi and the old emperor Bahadur Shah was taken prisoner. As a punishment, he was ordered life imprisonment and deported to Rangoon, where he died in 1862.

  Events at Lucknow

  Begum Hazrat Mahal, the wife of the Nawab of Awadh let the uprising at Lucknow on 30th May, 1857. The city was recaptured by the British in March 1858. Begum Hazrat Mahal fled towards the Nepal Frontier.

  Events at Kanpur

  The War of Independence was led by Nana Sahib at Kanpur. He wanted to get his pension from the government, which they were paying to the last Peshwa Baji Rao II. But now the British refused to grant it. Nana Sahib was the adopted son of the last Peshwa Baji Rao II and at that time there was a policy called the Doctrine of Lapse applied by the Governor-General Lord Dalhousie.
  Lord Dalhousie annexed few states like – Jhansi, Udaipur, Kanpur, Satara etc , by using this policy. Being a brave and determined General, Nana Sahib opposed this policy. But in the end, on 17th June, 1857 General Havelock captured Kanpur after defeating Nana Sahib.

CAUSES

POLITICAL CAUSES:The annexation policy of British was one of the major causes. The terms of the Subsidiary treaties signed by Wellesley with different rulers were never honoured unless it suited the British interests. The Doctrine of Lapse introduced by Dalhousie led to the outright annexation of eight states. Nana Saheb lost his pension. Rani of Jhansi was not permitted to adopt a son. They turned against the British. They were the most able leaders of the revolt. The annexation of Oudh and deposition of its ruler Wazid Ali Shah, made Oudh the most prominent centre of the revolt. Bahadur Shah II, the Mughal Emperor and his successors were humiliated by the British. They were prohibited from using their ancestral palace, the Red Fort, in future. Besides, the Muslims were in general dissatisfied with the British. They felt that they had lost their political power. Lakhs of soldiers employed by the dethroned princes became unemployed.

Administrative Causes :

The Indians disliked and distrusted the administration of the British. For example, the replacement of Persian language by English as the court language was not liked by the people. The judicial system of the British was costly, mechanical and involved much time. The poor could draw no advantage from it. The rich disliked it because they could be brought to trial even by appeals of the common men who had been subservient to them for centuries. The police system of the British was not effective by that time. The people always felt insecure of their property, life and honour. The most affected part of British administration was the revenue system. Under the British the peasants and the landlords suffered equally. The peasants had to pay heavy revenue taxes. The landlords were devoid of their special privileges. The British excluded the Indians from all high civil and military jobs. So the educated Indians who expected to get gainful employment in the service of the company were disappointed.

Economic Causes :

The economic exploitation of the country, the huge drain of wealth and the disappearance of the native industries dislocated the economic life of the people in India. The British crippled Indian trade and manufacture. They imposed heavy protective duties in Britain while British goods were imported into India at a nominal duty. The machine made British goods flooded the Indian markets and ruined Indian manufacture. With the disappearance of the old aristocratic Zamindars and rulers, the Indian artisans and craftmen lost their patronage. The Indian weavers and handicraftsmen were forced to work according to the desires of the servants of the company. They in return received very little wages. Naturally they lost their interest. It destroyed the cotton textile industry of India which was the largest and most beneficial industry. Thousands of people who held administrative posts under the Indian rulers were deposed. Loss of employment affected others who were dependent on those employees for their livelihood. Lord Bentinck’s resumption of rent-free tenures reduced the landowners to poverty. The English abolished several intermediaries like Jagirdars and Taluqdars. The out-break of seven famines in the first half of the nineteenth century made the economic distress more acute.

Social Causes :

The British regarded the Indians as an inferior race. They exhibited racial arrogance. They showed contempt in their dealing with the Indians. The Indians could not travel in first class train compartments. They were kept away from all social gatherings. They were not allowed to mix up with the English men. The conservative section of the Indians were alarmed by the rapid spread of Western culture and English education in India. Measures like the suppression of Sati and female infanticide, remarriage of widows and the right of inheritance to Christian converts offended the Indian orthodox sentiments.

Religious Causes :

The Christian missionaries were active in propagating Christianity. These activities created a sense of fear in the minds of the Indians. They suspected that the British were out to destroy their religions and convert India into a Christian land. R.D. Mangles, a member of the British Parliament, declared openly that ‘Every British must try his utmost to convert every Indian to Christianity and the banner of Christ should wave triumphant from one end of India to the other. This declaration created a great anger and disbelief against the British rule. Religious sentiments were aroused when the British imposed taxes on the lands belonging to temples and mosques. The priests and the maulvis showed their discontent against the British rule. All these activities made the British unpopular.

Military Causes :

The Indian soldiers were called the Sepoys. They constituted the majority of the British army in India. In fact, the sword of the British power rested on the loyalty and strength of these Indian Sepoys. But they were treated with contempt and made to feel inferior by the British. They were paid less than their British counterparts. The Indian sepoys had no chance of promotion in the army. They were prohibited from their traditional religious practices like wearing a saffron mark on their forehead, growing beard and wearing turbans. Lord Cannings’ Government passed in 1856, “The General Services Enlistment Act”. It compelled the Indian Sepoys to serve abroad, if there was need. They had to cross the seas. It made them angry against the British.

Immediate Cause :

There were about 40,000 British soldiers in the army and the number of Indians exceeded two lakhs. This numerical superiority made the sepoys feel that they could easily throw the English out if they acted unitedly. The Sepoys who were discontented by the English policies had a reason to feel alarmed.The immediate cause was the introduction of new enfield rifles by the British. The cartridges were greased by animal fat. The bullets had thick covering which had to be bitten off before loading. Believing that the fat of cow and pig had been used to grease these cartridges both the Hindu and Muslim sepoys refused to use them. They thought that this would offend their religious tradition because the cow is sacred to the Hindus and the pig is detestable to the Muslims. On 29 March 1857 at Barrackpore, near Kolkata, Mangal Pandey, a young Indian Sepoy from Bengal Regiment, refused to use the greased cartridge, and shot down his sergeant. He was arrested, tried and executed. When this news spread many sepoys started the revolt.

The course of the Revolt :

The Sepoys broke out into open revolt at Meerut in April 1857. They refused to touch the greased cartridges. They were courtmartialled and sentenced to ten years rigorous imprisonment. The regiments in Meerut rose in open revolt on 10 May 1857. They broke and opened the prison. They released the imprisoned soldiers and killed every European they saw, many whites were publicly killed. The revolt spread to Kanpur, Lucknow, Nasirabad, benaras and Jhansi. Then they marched to Delhi on 11 May and brought it under their control. They proclaimed the reluctant Bahadur Shah II, the old king of Delhi, as the Emperor. Sepoys from other centres too marched to Delhi. When the emperor expressed his inability to pay the salaries to the soldiers, they looted the treasury at Kanpur and other places. They resorted to many violent acts.

After a long fight, the English army led by John Nicholson, with the help of Sikh sepoys, reconquered Delhi.

this picture is belong to the Last King of mughal empire after 1857 war, His Highness King Bahadur shah Zafar... taking last breaths in prison....

KANPUR INCIDENT:

Nana Saheb

The revolt at Kanpur was led by Nana Saheb, the discontented adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II. He declared himself the Peshwar at Kanpur and kiled the English who had surrendered to him. But the English led by General Havelock recaptured Kanpur on June 17th 1857. Nanasaheb ranaway to Nepal.

A photo of Tantia Topi, said to have been the revolution's best general, after his capture in 1859

The troops of Nana Saheb were led by a loyal and gallant leader Tantia Tope. He recaptured Kanpur but he could not retain it for long. The English laid seige to Jhansi. Tatya Topey hurried to the place with 20,000 Sepoys but was defeated. He escaped to the forests, a traitor called Mansingh helped the British to arrest him. He was sentenced to death.

1857 Army of Nana Saheb & Tatya Tope

REVOLT IN LUCKNOW:

In Lucknow, the revolt was directed by Begum Hazrat Mahal of Oudh.The Sepoys and citizens together revolted in Lucknow. The people declared Wajid Ali's son as the Nawab and Hazarat Mahal herself took the administration. Soon the English recaptured Lucknow and the Begum escaped to Nepal.

REVOLT IN MADHYA PRADESH:

In Central India the revolt was guided by Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi. She was one of the greatest patriots of India. Dressed in male attire, she fought like a true soldier with unprecedented courage and military skill. She captured Gwalior. The Queen herself took led the army, mounted on the horseback with her adopted son tied toher back. She fought very bravely till she was killed in the battle in June 1858.
According to the British historians, present at the time of revolt, Rani Lakshmi Bai was the best and the bravest of the leaders of the Revolt of 1857.

At Bareily, the capital of Rohilkhand, the Sepoys revolted. They declared a Rohila Chief as the Governor. Kunwar Singh, the 80 year old landlord of Jagdishpur was the most outstanding military leader of Western Bihar.
The greatest heroes of the revolt were however, the thousands of sepoys, peasants and the artisans who joined the leaders. They fought valiantly with great courage. In some places the civil population rose in revolt. In fact, the participation of peasants, artisans and general population gave the revolt its real strength. It made the revolt a popular uprising. However, the revolt failed to succeed due to effective suppression by the British.
Causes for the failure of the Revolt :

Various causes led to the failure of the Revolt of 1857.

Lack of Unity : There was no unity among the rebels. The ideas of nationalism and unity had not yet developed. There was no common purpose among the rebels. The Sepoys of Bengal wanted to revive the medieval glories of the Mughals. Nana Saheb and Tantia Tope tried to re-establish the Maratha power. Rani Lakshmi Bai fought to regain her lost State. Secondly, the revolt was not widespread. It took place only in the Northern and Central parts of India. Even Bombay, the Punjab, Sind, Rajastan and South India remained quiet. The British managed to get the loyalty of the Sikhs, Afghans and the Gurkha regiments. The Gurkhas actually helped the British in suppressing the revolt.

Lack of Modern Weapons and Techniques : Mere participation or heroism could not match the latest weapons of the British. The sepoys who joined with the civilians could not face the well organised and well disciplined army of the British. The lack of resources both in trained men and money made the rebels to give up the struggle on many occasions. The Telegraphic system and Postal communications helped the British to speed up their operations.

Leadership : There was lack of good leaders on the part of the Indians. There was no organisation and planning. The rebel leaders were no match to the British Generals. Rani Lakshmi Bai, Tantia Tope and Nana Saheb were courageous but they were not good generals.

The seopoys indulged in looting and dacoities, resulted in the common people loosing their faith in them.

The English had the common goal of protecting their empire. The sepoys didnot have a definite aim, acceptable to all.

Finally the English mastery of the sea enabled them to get timely reinforcement from England.

Results of the Revolt :

1. After the revolt, the English East India Company’s rule came to an end,

2. The administration of India was taken over by the British Crown,

3. By a special Act, both the Board of Directors and the Board of control were abolished. In their place the office of the Secretary of State for India was created. He was assisted by an India council of 15 members,

4. The Indian army was thoroughly reorganized and

5. The policy of ruthless conquests in India was given up. The British realized the mistake of antagonising the rulers of the Indian states.

End of East India Company’s Rule :

The suppression of the revolt in 1858, a new phase appeared in the history of the British rule in India. There were important changes in the British policy towards India. There were administrative changes also.

Act of 1858 and Queen Victoria’s Proclamation :

In August 1858, the British Parliament passed an Act. It put an end to the rule of the East India Company. The British Crown took over the administration. The Governor–General of India was also called as Viceroy. It meant the representative of the Crown. Queen Victoria was the ruler of Britain at that time. A proclamation was issued in her name. Lord Canning, the Governor – General read it out at a Durbar held at Allahabad on 1 November 1858. The Queen’s Proclamation is described as the Magna Carta of
the Indian people. It assured some privileges to Indians. It confirmed the earlier treaties of East India Company with the Princes. It promised to pay due regard to the ancient traditions and customs of India. The right of adoption was given to the Indian princes. The policy of annexation was ended. The Proclamation declared that all Indians would be eligible to enter the administrative services on the basis of their education and ability, irrespective of race and creed.
Unconditional pardon was granted to the rebels except those who had been responsible for the murder of the British during the revolt.

A commemorative plaque in memory of people who died during the Indian Mutiny, or first war of Independence is seen at St. James's Church in New Delhi, 06 May 2007. Concecrated in 1836 St. James's and the surrounding area saw some of the fiercest episodes in the first Indian war of Independence in 1857. Celebrations are underway in India to commemerate the 150th anniversary of the first Indian war of Independence in 1857 - a bloody revolt which was spurred by rumours that the British were introducing bullets greased with cow and pig fat, which upset both Hindus and Muslims for religious reasons. The British crushed the revolt after four months, captured Delhi and exiled the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar to Rangoon, (now the Myanmar city of Yangon) where he died in captivity five years later.

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The below video clip is on Bhagath Singh. Please do watch to know more about this famous freedom fighter who was born on September 28, 1907.

Causes of the revolt of 1857
These are broadly categorized into four parts:
1. Political causes:

A. Doctrine of lapse
•Introduced by Lord Dalhousie.
•Stated thal heirs adopted without the approval of the Compay would only inherit the private property of the owner and the territories would be seized by the Company.
•Examples - Jhansi, Satara, Nagpur, Sambalpur etc seized in this manner.
•This doctrine caused widespread discontentment among Indian rulers.

B. Disrespect to Bahadur Shah Zafar
• Bahadur Shah was the last Mughal ruler of India.
• In 1849, Lord Dalhousie announced that Shah's successor will no longer be permitted to reside at the Red Fort and will have to move to a place near Qutub Minar. It was also declared the successors would be deprived of the right to be called Emperor and would
be regarded as mere princes.
• This decision hurt the sentiments of Muslims
.
C. Treatment meted out to Nana Saheb 
• Nana Saheb was the adopted son the last Peshwa - Bajirao II.
• The British refused to grant Nana Saheb the pension they were paying to Baji Rao II
• Nana Saheb had inherited enormous wealth which he utilized in sending emissaries to different parts of the country to gather support for a revolt movement.
• In general, Nana Saheb was annoyed.

D. On the pretext of misrule/mismanagement
• In 1856, Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh under the pretext of alleged misrule.
• The Nawab of Awadh, Wajid Ali Shah was removed from the throne.
• This threw many thousands of nobles, officials, and soldiers out of their job.
• This caused resentment among the people of Awadh, which played a major role in the uprising of 1857.

E. Unpopular Administration
• The Indians could not approach the British
• The British could humiliate Indians
• Indians found themselves out of place with English Laws and English Language
• British officers looked upon Indians as inferior and excluded them from high ranks.

F. Floating Rumours
• A rumor was spread that there's a change in power every hundred years.
• British came to power in 1757; Indians, in 1857, felt that the British rule had come to an end and they ought to be ousted.
• With this belief, the Indians rose in revolt against the British.

2. Socio-Religious cause:
A. SOCIAL CAUSES
1. Interference with social customs 
• Reforms like the abolition of Sati was introduced by Lord William Bentick in 1829.
• Widow Remarriage Act was passed and western education was opened to girls. This move was not welcomed by the Indians.
• These social reforms were aimed at improving the conditions of Indian society.
• However, while introducing such reforms the feelings of people were not taken into consideration.

2. Railways and Telegraph
• The introduction of modern innovations such as railways and telegraphs were misunderstood by the people.
• There were rumors that the telegraph poles were erected to hang anti - British people.
• The orthodox Indians noted that in the railway compartments, the high and low castes were made to sit side by side.
• The Indians believed that the British had introduced such reforms to defy their caste and religion.
3. The policy of racial discrimination.
• British officers were rude towards Indians and believed that they could kill them at their own will.
• Indians were not given high posts in British offices.
• Such acts of unjust discrimination alienated the British from Indian masses.

B. RELIGIOUS CAUSES

1. Fears regarding conversions to Christianity
• The activities of the Christian missionaries created a sense of alarm among Hindus and Muslims.
• The teaching of Christian doctrines was made compulsory in the missionary and government schools.
• Bible was introduced in jails, idol worship was criticized and officials openly preached Christian doctrines. The police force was also used for conversion.
• A feeling of panic rose among Indians who believed they would all be converted to Christianity.

2. Fears regarding Western Education
• The shifting of emphasis from oriental learning to Western education was not received well by the Pundits and the Maulvis.
• People started suspecting that the aim of Western education was not to promote literature and Sciences but to encourage their children to become Christians.
3. Law of property and taxing religious places
• The Hindu Law of Property(1850) enabled a convert from Hinduism to other religions to inherit the property of his father.
• The Hindus regarded this as an incentive to give up one's religious
faiths.
• Bathing in holy places, entry into temples and mosques was taxed,
causing discontentment.

3. Economic Causes
1. India reduced to an agro-colony of the British
• The manufacturers in England required other raw materials also such as cotton and oil seeds for their industries so they  tried to keep India mainly an agro- colony.
• India was forced to export, at cheaper rates raw materials like - 
1) cotton and silk which were urgently needed in British factories, 2) plantation crops and grains which were in short supply in England.
• India was made to accept ready made British goods either duty-free or at nominal duty rates.
2. Ruin of trade and handicrafts
• An Act was passed in 1720 in England which prohibited the use of Indian silks and calicoes in England.
• Heavy duties on Indian silk and cotton textiles in Britain - 70 to 80 percent respectively destroyed such industries.
• By the 1850s cotton and silk, export had practically ceased especially in Dhaka, Murshidabad, and Surat.
3. Impoverishment of cultivators
• Permanent Settlement of 1793 made landlords the absolute owners of their estates giving them the power to eject the cultivators for nonpayment of dues.
• Indigo trade was highly profitable to British but the conditions for the concerned peasants were inhumane.
• The farmers were forced to cultivate only cash crops and not food crops.
• If the farmers planted anything else their crops were burnt and their cattle was confiscated as a part of their punishment.
4. Annexation of Rent-free lands and Other estates.
• In 1852 Inam Commission was appointed to inquire into the title deeds of the owners of large estates.
• Many Zamindars were unable to produce their title deeds on account of the passage of time.
• But the Government did not respond to such pleas and confiscated some 2000 creating a huge wave of discontentment among the people especially of Awadh.
5. Loss of livelihood/Big famines
• Millions of artisans and craftsmen lost their jobs and had no source of income.
• Pandits and Maulvis were in danger of losing their jobs too due to the introduction of western education.
• Famines ravaged the country in the second half of the 19th century.
• The British Government could have at least lessened the misery of the affected people but it did nothing. 

4.MILITARY CAUSES
1. Ill-treatment of Indian soldiers
• Indian soldiers helped British East India Company to establish its Empire in India. They were as capable as their British counterparts.
• Still, they were ill-fed and badly houses. They were forbidden fro
adorning any cast or sectarian marks, beard or turbans.
• The sentiments of the Indian sepoys were disregarded.
2. General Service Enlistment Act
• The General Service Enlistment Act (1856) made it possible for the soldiers of Bengal Army to be ready for service
everywhere- inside or outside India.
• This act made it possible for a Brahmin to be sent overseas for duty which was considered a taboo.
• This created immediate alarm in the minds of the personnel of the Army and the Brahmins saw this as a threat to their caste.
3. Low salary and poor prospects of promotion
• All the high ranks in the army were reserved for the British only. The native sepoys could not rise above the rank of Risaldar or Subedar.
• The maximum pay of a Subedar was less than the minimum pay of a raw English recruit.
• This naturally affected the sepoys' morale.
4. Faulty distribution of troops
• Key places like Delhi and Allahabad had no British armies.
• Further, at this point, England was engaged in several other battles like Persian, Chinese, Afghan, and Crimean War respectively.
• The Indian soldiers realized that the British army was in difficulty and so they were determined to strike as there was a very suitable opportunity.
5. Disproportionate distribution of the Indian and British troops
• The Company's troop consisted of 4 times as many Indian soldiers as compared to British soldiers.
• Lord Dalhousie took up efforts to appoint more British soldiers in the army.
• However, he failed to achieve what he intended which gave courage to Indian soldiers to take up arms against the Britishers.
6. Introduction of Enfield Rifle(immediate cause)
• The immediate cause for the war of Independence was the introduction of Enfield Rifles in place of the old Brown
Bess Guns.
• The cartridges to be used for the Enfield Rifles were greased with the fat of cows and pigs.
• The cow is sacred to Hindus and the pig is a taboo to the Muslims.
• Both Muslim and Hindu soldiers refused to use these cartridges and staged an uprising when they were forced to use them.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE WAR
1. End of company's rule
• The war ended East India Company's rule in India and consequently the Better Government Act was passed in
1858 it brought about the following changes in the administrative setup -
1. The Act of 1858 transferred the Government of India from the
Company to the Crown.
2. Company's Board of Control and the Court of Directors were abolished and all their power was transferred to a cabinet minister known as Secretary Of State for India.
3. The Secretary of the Stae was to be assisted by the Indian Council consisting of 15 members.
4. Appointments to the Civil Service were to be made by open competition under rules made by the Secretary of State in
council.
5. The Governer-General received the additional title of Viceroy.
2. Queen Victoria's proclamation
1. Queen Victoria in her proclamation(1858) promised not to
interfere with the religious beliefs of the people in India.
2. She also promised equal treatment to all her subjects, Indians, and Europeans. All appointments would be strictly on the basis of education, ability, and integrity.
3. An official pardon would be granted to all those who took part in the war except such persons who were guilty of the murder of British subjects.
4. The material and Moral advancement of the people would be the
Government's main concern.
3. Policy towards the Indian princes and chiefs

• Queen Victoria declared in 1858 that the British Government would not annex the Indian states
• All the treaties that the Princes had made with the British would be honored and kept. Their rights of adoption and successors were realized too.
• Nana Saheb had fled to jungles of Nepal after taking an active
participation in the War.
• So the office of the Peshwa also came to an end.
• In the same way- with the death of Bahadur Shah II, the Mughal Dynasty came to an end.
4. Policy of divide and rule
• The Government employed the use of Divide and Rule policy after 1858.
• It turned princes against the people, province against province, people against people and above all Hindus against Muslims.
• In the War, the Muslims and Hindus had displayed a great unity in their revolt so the British were skeptical of their growing nearness.
• So it cleverly used Government services to create a split between the two religions.
• The British also encouraged hatred and ill-feeling among the Hindus and the Muslims so that they could never challenge the British Empire again.
5. Economic exploitation of India
• The number of Englishmen in India, both private individuals and members of services, increased.
• India was turned into a typical colonial economy, exporting raw material and importing finished goods.
• There was a rapid rise in the indebtedness of the peasants under the British Rule.
• The British invested their surplus capital in India, in railways, plantations, coal mines, jute mills, shipping, etc
6. Reorganization of the Army • The proportion of the British to Indian soldiers were increased.
• Artillery and other effective weapons of warfare were reserved for the British troops in India.
• All key positions in the army were exclusively reserved for the British.
• Indian soldiers belonging to different castes and creeds were mixed up in a manner that no sentiment of unity could arise among them.

Short Notes

First War of Independence, 1857
Immediate Cause --> * Soldiers made to bite off ends of greased cartridges in ‘Enfield Rifles’ having fat of cows and pigs
* Barrackpore – Mangal Pande refused to use catridges and attacked Adjutant of his regiment, for fear of moss of his
caste and religion. (Arrested and hanged on 8th April, 1857)
Events --> Delhi
* Revolutionaries killed British soldiers, captured Delhi, and proclaimed Bahadur Shah II the ruler of India.
* British adamant on recapturing Delhi; Sir John Nicholson along with loyal Sikh soldiers captured Delhi after four months.
* Bahadur Shah sentenced to life imprisonment; Two sons were killed before him. – End of Mughal Rule
Kanpur
* Led by Nana Sahib, adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.
* General Havelock captured Kanpur after defeating Nana Sahib, on 17th June, 1857; Nana Sahib fled to Nepal.
* Tantia Tope captured Kanpur, but was defeated by the British.
Lucknow
* Led by Begum of Oudh; Sir Henry Lawrence shot dead.
* Defeated and recaptured by Sir Colin Campbell in 1858.
Central India
* Led by Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi and Tantia Tope.
* Occupied Gwalior
Causes --> Military
* General Service Enlistment Act, 1856
* Numerical Strength of Indian Soldiers
* Effect of Annexation of Oudh
* Unjust Treatment
* Loss of British Prestige in Afghan War
Religious
* Social and Religious Reforms – Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Raja Rammohan Roy
* Introduction of Railways and Telegraphs
* Government Support to Missionaries
* Introduction of New Laws – Lord Dalhousie
* Introduction of Modern Education
Economic
* Exploitation of Natural Resources
* Subordination of Indian Industry
* Collapse of Handicrafts and Cottage Industries
* Economic Draining of India
* Unemployment among People
* Resumption of Tax-free Lands – Confiscation by Lord Dalhousie; Introduction by Lord William Bentinck
* Unemployment, Poverty, and Famine
Political
* Policy of Annexation – Doctrine of Lapse; Lord Dalhousie; Annexed Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur.
* The Annexation of Oudh – Lord Dalhousie
* Disrespect shown to Bahadur Shah
* Disrespect to Nana Sahib and Rani of Jhansi
* Disbanding the Armies of the Annexed States
* Inefficient Handling of the Situation – Corrupt and greedy British officials.
* Spreading of a Rumor – Belief that rulers in India change after every 100 years.
Consequences --> End of Company’s Rule

WORLD WAR I

WORLD WAR I

World War One, what a sad, sad story,
A story of hope, love and glory,
Those lives we lost always remembered,
The guns fired their last, that day in November,
Shots fill the air, startling sounds all around,
A sudden blast, as a bomb touched the ground,
Those courageous men, fighting together,
They are in our thoughts today and forever,
Our lives are changed, forever and ever.

INTRODUCTION: 
Click the link for the video

World War I - summary of the "Great War"

If you are new to the First World War - or are rusty after many years since history class - the reasons for the so-called 'Great War' can be shrouded in confusion.

The Second World War was rather more straightforward: no questions there who did what and who was at fault.

The First World War (1914-1918) was an unprecedented even in the history of the world, both in its scale and magnitude of effects.

World War I also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict that embroiled most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Entente and the Central Powers. Over 70 million military personnel were mobilized in one of the largest wars in history. The main combatants descended into a state of total war, pumping their entire scientific and industrial capabilities into the war effort. Over 15 million people were killed, making it one of the deadliest conflicts in history.

World War I is infamous for the protracted stalemate of trench warfare along the Western Front, embodied within a system of opposing manned trenches and fortifications (separated by a "No man's land") running from the North Sea to the border of Switzerland. Hostilities were also prosecuted, however, by more dynamic invasion and battle, by fighting at sea and - for the first time - in and out from the air. Also, there were some battles that foreshadowed the rapid movement of WWII, take for example the Battle of St. Mihel in 1918. Here, within a matter of one day, American troops, supported by tanks, airplanes, and artillery, advanced over 20 miles, clearing a salient that had been a thorn in the side of the French army since 1914. More than 9 million soldiers died on the various battlefields, and nearly that many more in the participating countries' home fronts on account of food shortages and genocide committed under the cover of various civil wars and internal conflicts. In World War I, only some 5% of the casualties (directly caused by the war) were civilian - in World War II, this figure approached 50%.

Ultimately, World War I created a decisive break with the old world order that had emerged after the Napoleonic Wars, as modified by the mid-19th century national revolutions, the processes of European national unification and European colonialism. Three European land empires were shattered and subsequently dismembered to varying degrees: the German, the Austro-Hungarian and the Russian. In the Balkans and the Middle East, the Ottoman Empire experienced the same fate. Three European imperial dynasties, represented by the Hohenzollern, the Habsburg and the Romanov families in Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia respectively, also fell during the war.

World War I witnessed the first advent of Communism as a means of government in Russia. The following decades would see the transformation of the old Russian Empire into the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, a global power. In the east, the demise of the Ottoman Empire paved the way for the states such as Republic of Turkey and a number of successor states and territories throughout the Middle East. In Central Europe, the new states of Czechoslovakia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia and Yugoslavia were born and Austria, Hungary and Poland were re-created. Shortly after the war, in 1923, Fascists came to power in Italy; in 1933, 14 years after the war, Nazism took over Germany. Problems unresolved or created by the war would be highly important factors in the outbreak, within 20 years, of World War II.

Did you get understand? Let us begin this lesson with this video clip.

world war I in colour

CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF WORLD WAR 1

•Why was Europe on the brink of war in 1914?
•Why did war break out?
•What were the results of the fighting in 1914?

Let's see another video clip on World War I.

What are the causes for the rising tensions in Europe, 1914 ?

That's a good question! Ok. -Tensions result of four factors. Let's have a glance of these points.
–Militarism
–Alliances
–Imperialism
–Nationalism

MILITARISM: •Massive military buildup in European countries, late 1800s and early 1900s
•Wanted to protect overseas colonies from other nations
•Growing power of armed forces left all sides ready to act at first sign of trouble
•Minor disagreements had potential to turn to armed conflict

ALLIANCES:
•Nations formed partnerships to protect against opposing forces
•Triple Alliance united Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy
•Great Britain joined France, Russia in Triple Entente
•Believed no one nation would attack another, because allies would join fight

IMPERIALISM:
•Late 1800s and early 1900s saw quest to build empires
•Created rivalry, ill will among European nations
•Germany, France, Russia, Great Britain vied to become great imperial nations
•Each did not want others to gain power

NATIONALISM: •Strong devotion to one’s national group or culture, increased in late 1800s
•Led to formation of new countries, struggles for power
•Most visible in Balkan Peninsula, southeastern Europe
•Home to many ethnic groups trying to break free from Ottoman Empire

Now, do you know the causes of the World War 1? Still not got it! OK, look at these two video clippings and jot down some points and then check the answers.

So what are the causes? Shall we go through those points again? Yea, let's do it.

Militarism: Was another cause of the war, was simliar to the arms race of today. Because Britain had a great navy, Germany wanted a great navy too. Germany and France competed for larger armies. The more one nation built up its army and navy, the more other nations felt they had to do the same.

ALLIANCE SYSTEM: For Twenty years, the nations of Europe had been making alliances. It was thought the alliances would promote peace. Each country would be protected by others in case of war. making it foolish for one country to wage war on another.
The danger of these alliances was that an argument between two countries could draw all the other nations into a fight. This is just what happened when a conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia led to World War 1.
In the summer of 1914 there were two alliances. The Triple Alliance composed of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, stood opposed to the Triple Entente composed of Britain, France, and Russia.

IMPERIALISM: Another cause was that European nations ruled smaller countries, called colonies, and competed with each other to amass more colonies. Gatehring colonies became known as IMPERIALISM. Both France and Britain had many colonies in Africa and Asia. Now Germany and Italy decided they wanted a colonial empire too.

NATIONALISM:In addition to political conflicts, the causes of the war included such forces as NATIONALISM, or patriotism. Nationalism led European nations to compete for the largest army and navy, or the greatest industrial development. It also gave groups of subject peoples the idea of forming independent nations of their own.

ESCALATION

The war that would destroy European society had been coming for a long time. The nineteenth century had been an era of great progress,
and of turmoil and conflict as well. New nations had been created. The balance of power that existed in 1815, at the end of the era of Napoleon, was disturbed.
Adding to the danger was a false sense of security. Local wars had flared up in the nineteenth century, but a major war was regarded as unlikely. Looking back at 1914 today, however, we can see that each of the major countries of Europe had interests that would bring it into conflict with at least one of the other great powers.

SPARK

On June 28, 1914, Gacrilo Princip, a nineteen-year-old Serbian revolutionary, fired two pistols shots. One killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the nephew of Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary and heir to the Austrian throne. The other killed Sophie, his wife.

Franz Ferdinand and his wife leaving Cityhall Sarajevo just before they got murdered


Austria-Hungary held Serbia responsible. On July 5 Austria asked for and recieved from Germany a "blank check" of support for any action Austria-Hungary might take against Serbia.
On July 23 Austria sent a series of demands to the Serbians. The demands were designed to humiliate and virtually destroy the Serbian nation. Still, Serbia agreed to most but not all of the demands.
Austria reacted on July 28 by declaring war on Serbia. The Russians prepared to defend Serbia. On July 31 the Germans sent a warning to Russia to stop mobilizing its army for war. the Russians ignored the warning, and Germany declared war on Russia on August 1. France came to the aid of its Russian ally by declaring war on Germany. The British hesitated, but when the Germans marched into Belgium, they declared war on Germany on Aug 4.
Italy, the third member of the Triple Alliance, refused to back Germany and Austria-Hungary. Italy claimed the Triple Alliance was for defensive purposes only and Austria's declaration of war against Serbia was no defensive.
So in August, 1914, the guns of the war went off. The system of alliances for keeping peace had brought the great nations of Europe into war with one another.

great war 1

Assassination of Franz Ferdinand
28th June 1914

Franz Ferdinand, aged 51, was heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He was married to Sophie Chotek von Chotvoka and had three children. Franz Ferdinand was, however, very unpopular because he had made it clear that once he became Emperor he would make changes.
This map, of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1914, shows that Bosnia/Herzegovnia was controlled by Austria. Austria had annexed (taken by force) Bosnia in 1908, a move that was not popular with the Bosnian people.
Franz Ferdinand decided to visit Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovnia, to make an inspection of the Austro-Hungarian troops there. The inspection was scheduled for 28th June 1914. It was planned that Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie would be met at the station and taken by car to the City Hall where they would have lunch before going to inspect the troops.

A Serbian terrorist group, called The Black Hand, had decided that the Archduke should be assassinated and the planned visit provided the ideal opportunity. Seven young men who had been trained in bomb throwing and marksmanship were stationed along the route that Franz Ferdinand's car would follow from the City Hall to the inspection.

The first two terrorists were unable to throw their grenades because the streets were too crowded and the car was travelling quite fast. The third terrorist, a young man called Cabrinovic, threw a grenade which exploded under the car following that of the Archduke. Although the Archduke and his wife were unhurt, some of his attendants were injured and had to be taken to hospital.
After lunch at the City Hall, Franz Ferdinand insisted on visiting the injured attendants in hospital. However, on the way to the hospital the driver took a wrong turn. Realising his mistake he stopped the car and began to reverse. Another terrorist, named Gavrilo Princip, stepped forward and fired two shots. The first hit the pregnant Sophia in the stomach, she died almost instantly. The second shot hit the Archduke in the neck. He died a short while later.
The bodies of Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie.
Gavrilo Princip was not executed because he was under 20 years, but was sentenced to twenty years in prison. He died of TB in 1918.

cause n effect

TREATY OF VERSAILLES:
The treaty of Versailles granted france many of its demands. Germany had to return AlsaceLorraine and give France control of the coal mines of the Saar region for 15 years. Germany also lost land to Poland. To give Poland access to the Baltic Sea, the Polish Corridor was created. This was a strip of land that separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany. The Baltic Sea port of Danzig became a free trading city, controlled by neither Poland nor Germany.
German territory on oth sides of the Rhine River were demilitarized. To prevent Germany from again becoming a military threat, the treaty also reduced the German army to 100,000 men, with no heavy artillery, tanks, or warplanes.
Germany also lost its overseas territories in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Ocean. Its African colonies were given to France and Britain as mandates.
The treaty required Germany to pay reparations-war damages- to other nations. Germany had to make up for loss of property, factories, farms, ships, and other things destroyed in the war.
The various nationalities in the former Austro-Hungarian Empire carved out their own states. The peacemakers recognized these as independant nations. Czechs and Slovaks formed the new country Czechoslovakia. The Croats and the Slovenes joined with Serbia to form Yugoslavia. The new Austria, greatly reduced in size and power, and was forbidden to unite with Germany. The Ottoman Empire was stripped of all its lands outside Turkey.
League of Nations a former international organization, formed after WORLD WAR I to promote international peace and security. The basis of the League, the Covenant, was written into the Treaty of VERSAILLES and other peace treaties and provided for an assembly, a council, and a secretariat. A system of colonial mandates was also set up. The U.S., which failed to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, never became a member. Based in Geneva, the League proved useful in settling minor international disputes, but was unable to stop aggression by major powers-e.g., Japan's occupation of Manchuria (1931), Italy's conquest of Ethiopia (1935-36), and Germany's seizure of Austria (1938). It collapsed early in World War II and dissolved itself in 1946. The League established the first pattern of permanent international organization and served as a model for its successor, the UNITED NATIONS. (source encyclopedia.com
The fairness of this treaty to Germany was debated for years. Critics pointed out that the kaisers gov had already been toppled. The burden of carrying out the treaty fell on a new democratic German Gov, making it difficult for this new Government to survive.

WHAT ARE THE CAUSES FOR THE FIRST WORLD WAR?

Remeber 4 points.

1. AGGRESSIVE NATIONALISM: Europe saw the emergence of aggressive nationalism which generated a sense of superiority among the people. They had grown proud of their country and considered it a sacred duty to fight for the coutnry. Whether the country was right or wrong, colonies were also considered a matter of national prestige.

2. THE SYSTEM OF RIVAL ALLIANCES: Towards the end of the 19th century, a number of countries of Europe entered into alliances to safeguard their economic and political interests. Germany formed a Triple Alliance with the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Italy. England, France and Russia formed Triple Entente. On account of these alliances, Europe was divided into two hostile camps.

3. THE ARMAMENT RACE:- The mutual suspicion of these two groups gave rise to arms race. Every nation in Europe built vast reserves of arms and ammunitions. The countries comepted with each other to modernise their respective war machineries and increase the strength of the army.

4. IMMEDIATE CAUSE: When the Austrian crown-prince visited the Bosnian capital Sarajevo in 1914, he was murdered by a Serbian. Austria wanted to punish Serbia, hence it declared war and sought the help of Germany. Russia supported Serbia. Thus the World War I broke out. Germany, Austria, Turkey and Bulgaria were on one side. Serbia, England, Belgium, Italy, Russia and France were on the opposite side. In the course of the time, the USA also joined England.

THE COURSE OF THE WAR:

Germany attacked France and England on behalf of France and Belgium, declared war on Germany. The group led by England was called Allied powers and its opponents were called Axis powers. Japan joined the Allied powers. Fearing an invasion from Russia, Turkey joined hands with Germany. Bulgaria, an enemy of Serbia, allied itself with Austro-Hungarian empire which was friendly with Germany. After the Russian Revolution in 1917, Russia turned neutral.

The FirstWorld War was fought for four years from 1914to 1918. New techniques such as the trench warfare, air surveying, air boming and battle tanks were used. After the German submarines sunk the ship Lustiania, a large contingent of American army reached France. The Arabs revolted against the Turkish hegemony. Portugal, Rumania and Greece joined England. After Germany's defeat at Marne in 1918, Turkey, Austria and Bulgaria surrendered. Kaiser William II, the emperor of Germany was foreced to abdicate and Germany signed an armistice which ended the war.

THE RESULTS:
Millions of people including the civilians, died in the war, and many more wounded. Towns, cities, roads, dams, bridges, railways and factories were destroyed on an unprededented scale. Their reconstruction, providing jobs to the unemployed, providing food and rehabilitation to them became an impossible task. The great economic depression was also caused by the war. (1929)
The Treaty of Versailles imposed humiliating conditions on Germany. Turkey lost its hold on Armenia, which became a separate republic. In the Balkan region, Czechoslovakia, Lithuania, Yugoslavia and Hungary were created.

The loss of life, bloodshed and the destruction caused by the war created a desire for preventing wars and fostering peace. To fulfil this ardent desire, the League of Nations was established.


What events led to the outbreak of World War I?
Serbian Gavrilo Princip killed Austrian Archduke Ferdinand and his wife; Germany (an ally of Austria-Hungary) declared war on Russia (an ally of Serbia); Germany attacked Belgium; Great Britain declared war on Germany

Why was Europe on the brink of war in 1914?
Ans: rising tensions as result of militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism

OVERVIEW

•65 million combatants from 30 countries representing every continent
•29 million become casualties
•Naval battles around the world and land battles in Europe, Africa, and Asia
•Triple Alliance = Germany, Austria, Italy
•+Turkey + Bulgaria - Italy = Central Powers
•Entente Cordiale = Britain, France
•+ Russia + Italy + (later) US = Allied Powers
•Revolutionary technology, but evolutionary tactics

ROAD TO WAR

•Germany, Italy, Russia, Austro-Hungary all fairly recently “unified” with significant internal unrest
•Germany seeks new markets/prestige of colonies
•Massive arms race
•Multiple and extensive alliances

1914

•June 28, 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, is assassinated in Sarajevo
•July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia
•August 1 Germany declares war on Russia
•August 3 Germany declares war on France
•August 4 Great Britain declares war on Germany

•August 4 Germany invades neutral Belgium
•August 26-30 German army achieves its greatest victory of the war on the Eastern front at the Battle of Tannenberg
•September 5-10 First Battle of the Marne halts German invasion in France
•September 15 First trenches of the Western front are dug

1915

•January 19, 1915 First German Zeppelin air raid on England
•February 4 Germany declares a submarine blockade of Great Britain. Any boat approaching England is considered a legitimate target
•April 22-May 5 Second Battle of Ypres marks first use of chemical weapons
•April 25 Allies begin assault on Gallipoli peninsula in Turkey
•May 7 Sinking of the passenger ship Lusitania
•Killed 1200, 123 Americans
•May 23 Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary
•August 30 Germany responds to U.S. anger by ceasing to sink ships without warning
•December 28 Allies begin withdrawal of troops from Gallipoli

1916

•February 21 - December 18, 1916 The longest battle of the war, the Battle of Verdun, is fought to a draw with an estimated one million casualties
•July 1-November 18 The Battle of the Somme results in an estimated one million casualties and no breakthrough for the Allies
•December 31 Russian Rasputin, is murdered by relatives of the Tsar.

1917

•February 1, 1917 Germany again declares unrestricted submarine warfare
•April 6 The United States declares war on Germany
•July 6 T.E. Lawrence and the Arabs capture Aquaba
•July 16-November 10 Third Battles of Ypres, known as Passchendaele, results in minor gains, but still no breakthrough
•November 7 Bolshevik socialists, led by Lenin, overthrow Kerinsky government
•December 3 The new Russian government, represented by Leon Trotsky, signs an armistice with Germany
•December 9 British capture Jerusalem

1918

•January 8, 1918 President Woodrow Wilson declares his 14 points as the path to world peace
•March 21 Germans launch the first of five major offensives to win the war before American troops appear in the trenches
•April 25 British and Australian troops stop the German advance near Amiens
•May 23 German shells land on Paris
•August 8 Allied counteroffensives on the Somme push the German army back
•September 29 Allied troops break through the German fortifications at the Hindenberg line
•November 11 At eleven o'clock on the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918, the war ends as Germany and Allies sign an Armistice

Schlieffen Plan

•Germans want to finish off French before Russia is ready to fight
•Germans believe French will immediately try to retake Alsace-Lorraine
•Original plan called for economy of force on the left while heavily weighting the right flank
• Von Moltke revised and distributed forces more evenly across the front
•Plan failed when Germans were held up by Belgians, then stopped by French and British at the Battle of the Marne
•Russians also mobilized more quickly than expected

TRENCH WARFARE

•Machine gun and artillery make it difficult to attack a trench
•Huge artillery preps make “No Man’s Land” virtually impassable
•Huge casualties for attackers

RUTHLESS TACTICS

-Chemical warfare made trench warfare more horrible
-Mustard/Blister agents deployed
-First used on French in 1915

QUESTION AND ANSWERS

Q1. When did the First World War break out?
Ans. The First World War broke out in the year 1914.

Q2. Why is the war fought between 1914 and 1918 called the First World War?
Ans. 1. It was fought on a worldwide scale and affected almost all the countries of the world.
2. Because of the unprecedented extent of its spread, impact and damage and its total nature, it is known as the First World War.

Q3. Give the meaning of Nationalism.
Ans. It refers to a sense of unity felt by the people ,who share a common history, language and culture.

Q4. How was aggressive nationalism a cause for the First World War?
Ans. 1. Aggressive nationalism meant love for one’s own country and hatred of the other countries.
2. Each nation thought about its own national interests and did not care for the interests of the other nations.
3. For example, France wanted to get back its provinces of Alsace and Lorraine from Germany.
4. Italy wanted to get back the territory of Trentino Trieste from Austria.
5. Balkan States like Serbia wanted that their fellow nationals (Slavs) who lived in other States should come together to form a greater Balkan State.
6. These countries developed expansionist policies in the name of nationalism.
7. Therefore, military strength became synonymous with national prestige and every country began to increase her military power.

Q5. What is imperialism ?
Ans. A system by which a powerful nation used to establish its control over another country, either by political pressure, infiltration and annexation or by outright wars.

Q6. Name the largest ship built by Germany in the year 1912.
Ans. Imperator.

Q7. Why did Germany dug the Kiel Canal?
Ans. The Germans dug the Kiel Canal deeper so that battleships could enter its waters.

Q8. How were the single Nation-States different from the Imperial States?
Ans. 1. Single Nation States – national identities were based on their common language and traditions. Eg: - France, Holland, Germany.
2. Imperial States – the population spoke different languages and had different cultural traditions. Eg:- The Austria –Hungarian Empire was ruled by the Hapsburg dynasty of Austria included and it included in its territory Hungarian, Serb, Bosnian and Croat population.

Q9. Name the signatory countries of the Triple Alliance (1882). State the rival block that was formed and the signatory countries of that bloc.
Ans. 1. Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy.
2. The rival bloc was the - Triple Entente: France, England, Russia and Japan joined later.

Q10. Name the heir to the throne of Austria – Hungary who was assassinated at Sarajevo.
Ans. Archduke Francis Ferdinand.

Q11. Name the Allied powers and the Central powers.
Ans. 1. Allied powers – Britain, France, Russia and their allies.
2. Central powers – Germany, Austria and their allies.

Q12. Why did the USA join the First World War?
Ans. 1. In 1915, the German U – boats had sunk a British ship Lusitania. Among the 1153 passengers killed, 128 were Americans.
2. The Americans were generally sympathetic to Britain, and this incident further
aroused anti – German feelings in the U.S.A.
3. The allied powers (Britain, France, Russia and their allies) had vast amounts of loans in the U.S.A to pay for the arms and other goods bought by them.
4. Therefore the U.S.A feared that if Germany won the war, she would become a serious rival to the U.S.A.

Q13(a) What is the Treaty of Versailles? When was it signed?
Ans 1. The Treaty of Versailles refers to the treaty signed between the Allies (England, France, Russia and Japan) and Germany by which the First World War was brought to an end.
2. The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28,1919 in Versailles ,a suburb of Paris.

Q13(b) Name the dignitaries who decided the terms of the Treaty.
Ans 1. Woodrow Wilson – President of the United States.
2. Lloyd George – Prime Minister of Britain.
3. George Clemenceau – Prime Minister of France.

Q14. Why was the League of Nations established?
Ans. 1. The League of Nations was created as a world organization of all independent states in 1920.
2. It was established to promote cooperation, to achieve peace and security and to guarantee the independence of all states.

Q15. What are the aims and objectives of the League of Nations?
Ans. 1. All the states of the world were prohibited from entering any secret treaties and alliances.
2. Member states were not supposed to maintain huge armies, warships and destructive armaments.
3. All states were to respect each other’s independence.
4. Mutual disputes between states were to be referred to the League of Nations for a peaceful settlement.
5. The Member-States were to take necessary action as directed by the League against any State which tried to disturb world peace and order.
6. The League of Nations was to promote cultural , Social and economic co-operation among member states.

Structures Questions
Q1. Various events led to the First World War. In this context, explain the following:
(a) Nationalism and Imperialism –
1. Nationalism refers to the sense of unity felt by the people, who share a common history, language and culture.
2. In the latter half of the 19th century, this feeling of unity turned into extreme pride, which made the people of many countries believe that their country is superior to other countries.
3. This led to the development of aggressive nationalism.
4. For Example, France wanted to get back the territory of Trentino Trieste from Austria and Balkan States like Serbia wanted that their fellow nationals (Slavs) who lived in other states should come together to form a greater Balkan states.
5. These countries developed expansionist policies in the name of nationalism.
6. Aggressive nationalism led to the rise of imperialism.
7. Many nations developed myths of their superiority over other people and felt that they must have colonies to add to their power and prestige.
8. British imperialism was focused on maintaining and expanding trade by exploiting the resources of its colonies.
9. Some other countries of the world like Germany, Italy, Russia and Japan also wanted to increase their sphere of influence and create their colonies in Asia and Africa.
10. Thus ,aggressive nationalism and fierce economic competition filled the atmosphere with fear, apprehension, mutual hatred and international tension.

(b) Race for Armaments-
1. Every major power began stockpiling armaments in the name of self-defense and preservation of peace.
2. In order to protect her colonies in Africa and a few islands in the Pacific, Germany began to build a powerful navy with a view to achieve parity with Britain.
3. By 1914, she had left Britain and France  far behind in the production of iron and steel and in many other manufacturers.
4. One of its ship, the Imperator, built in 1912 was the largest in the world.
5. The Germans dug the Kiel Canal deeper so that the battleships could enter its waters.
6. This led to a fierce competition among the European countries and gave rise to the race for armaments.

(c) Division of Europe into two hostile groups-
1. There were two kinds of states in Europe inn the early 20th century.
2. Single nation states like France, Holland and Germany and imperial states like the Austrian –Hungarian empire and the Russian empire.
3. Germany entered into an alliance with Austria –Hungary. In 1882 Italy joined the alliance and it came to be known as the Triple Alliance.
4. Later France entered into a friendly relation with Russia and England. The three countries entered into the Triple Entente in 1907 to counter the Triple Alliance. Later Japan joined the Triple Entente.
5. Thus Europe was divided into two hostile camps.

Q2 How did the Sarajevo Crisis in 1914 lead to the First World War?
Ans
1. On the 28th of June, 1914, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian-Hungarian throne was assassinated at Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia by extreme Serbian nationalists called ‘Black Hand’ or ‘Union of Death’.
2. Austria served an ultimatum on Serbia on 23rd July making 11 demands.
3. Serbia accepted most of the demands except those that would have led to the loss of her sovereignty.
4. Austria declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914.

Q3 There were several far reaching consequences as a result of the First World War.
In this context , answer the following:

(a) Terms of the Treaty of Versailles-
1. The Treaty of Versailles declared Germany guilty of aggression.
2. The German Army was restricted to a force of 1, 00, 000 soldiers and the Navy was limited to 15,000 men and 24 ships. The Air Force and submarines were banned.
3. The area of Rhine Valley was to be demilitarized and the German territory west of Rhine was to be occupied by the Allied troops for 15 years.
4. Germany lost Alsace Lorraine to France; Eupen-et-Malmedy to Belgium, Schleswig to Denmark. Danzig became a Free Port in the Polish territory.
5. Germany ceded parts of her pre-War territory to Denmark, Belgium, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and France.
6. The coal mines in the German area called Saar were ceded to France for 15 years and the area was to governed by the League of Nations.
7. Germany lost all her colonies to the victorious Allies – Britain, South Africa and Portugal.
8. German colonies in the Pacific and the areas under her control in China were given to Japan. China was aligned with the Allies during the War but her areas under German control were given away to Japan.
9. Germany was required to pay for the loss & damages suffered by the Allies during the war. The amount of reparation was fixed at 33 billion dollars. Germany had to cede (surrender) her merchant ships to the Allies as compensation. Germany had to supply huge quantities of coal to France, Italy & Belgium for ten years.
10. The Treaty affirmed the complete independence of Belgium, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.
11. The Covenant of the League of Nations was added to the Treaty of Versailles.

(b) Territorial Rearrangements-
1. The United States surpassed Europe to emerge as a world power.
2. Three ruling dynasties were destroyed – the Romanov in Russia, the Hohezollern in Germany, the Hapsburg in Austria-Hungary.
3. Austria and Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia emerged as independent states.
4. Empires having different cultures were dissolved and independent states having distinct cultures emerged after the war – Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Yugoslavia.
5. Alsace -Lorraine was restored to France and Schelswig – Hostein was restored to Denmark.

(c) Formation of the League of Nations-
1. The horrors of war convinced the leaders of the world that there must be a mechanism to prevent war and promote international cooperation.
2. Wilson’s fourteen points included the creation of an international organization for the preservation of peace and to guarantee the independence of all states.
3. Thus the League of Nation was created as a world organization of all independent States in 1920

Q1) What was the immediate cause of the First World War?
 On June 28, 1914 Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the Crown Prince of Austria, and his wife were assassinated at Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. The assassination was planned in Serbia by a secret society who wanted to achieve the union of all South Slavs under Serbia. Serbia was blamed for their assassination and Austria sent an ultimatum to Serbia. The Serbian refused to accept the ultimatum and it led to the beginning of the First World War
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 Q2) When and where was the Treaty of Versailles signed? Name the leaders who framed the treaty. The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919 in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles in France. The leaders who played an active role in framing this treaty were the British Prime Minister Lloyd George, the French Premier Clemenceau, the U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, and Italy’s Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando. 

Q3) Mention three points under the Treaty of Versailles which affected Germany. Germany was humiliated by the Treaty of Versailles, 1919. (a) Her allies and she had to cede pre-war territories. She had to give up her colonial empire which was in turn, divided among the victors. (b) Even the productive Rhine Valley and the Saar mines were ceded to France. AlsaceLorraine, which had been captured by Germany in the Franco-Prussian War, was returned to France as well. (c) Germany had to give up Danzig, which became a free/independent port. (d) Germany had to demilitarize and limit her army and vessels (ships). Germany wasn’t allowed to keep any submarines. 

Q4) State the cause of the failure of the League of Nations. 
(a) The League of Nations was set up to maintain peace in the world and prevent wars. However, was unable to achieve her objective due to lack of military power to implement her decisions and to punish the defaulters. They did not have an international army ready to fight for peace. (b) The League of Nations could not take any appropriate action when Italy annexed Abyssinia, Japan annexed Manchuria, and Germany annexed Austria and Czechoslovakia. The member nations hence, lost faith in the league. (c) The two main super powers of the world, the United States of America and the Soviet Union, refused to be members of the League of Nations. Hence, the league lacked the necessary support from these two main countries.