THE FIRST WAR OF INDIAN INDEPENDENCE - 1857
The first hundred years of British rule in India from 1757 to 1857, were marked by the British victories and the rapid expansion of their dominion in India.
By the middle of the 19th century, the English rule in India was firmly established . The system of Subsidiary Alliance and the Doctrine of Lapse had extended the English territory to its natural limits. However, discontentment was growing within this apparent stability, which resulted in the revolt of 1857. This revolt has been called as the Sepoy Mutiny by the British Historians and as the first war of Indian Independence by Indian Historians. We will begin this lesson with this video clip. Enjoy!!
INTRODUCTION
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of sepoys of the British East India Company's army on 10 May, 1857, in the town of Meerut, and soon erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions largely in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, with the major hostilities confined to present-day Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, northern Madhya Pradesh, and the Delhi region. The rebellion posed a considerable threat to Company power in that region, and it was contained only with the fall of Gwalior on 20 June 1858. The rebellion is also known as India's First War of Independence, the Great Rebellion, the Indian Mutiny, the Revolt of 1857, the Uprising of 1857 and the Sepoy Mutiny.
The rebels, often considered freedom fighters by Indian nationalists, quickly captured large swathes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, including Delhi, where they installed the Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as Emperor of Hindustan. The Company response came rapidly as well: by September 1857, with help from fresh reinforcements, Delhi had been retaken.Nevertheless, it then took the better part of 1858 for the rebellion to be completely suppressed in Oudh.
Other regions of Company-controlled India—Bengal province, the Bombay Presidency, and the Madras Presidency—remained largely calm.In Punjab, only recently annexed by the East India Company, the Sikh princes backed the Company by providing both soldiers and support. The large princely states, Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as well as the smaller ones of Rajputana, by not joining the rebellion, served, in the Governor-General Lord Canning's words, as "breakwaters in a storm" for the Company.
In some regions, especially in Oudh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against European presence;however, although the rebel leaders, especially the Rani of Jhansi, became folk heroes in the burgeoning nationalist movement in India half a century later, they themselves "generated no coherent ideology or programme on which to build a new order."
The rebels, often considered freedom fighters by Indian nationalists, quickly captured large swathes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, including Delhi, where they installed the Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as Emperor of Hindustan. The Company response came rapidly as well: by September 1857, with help from fresh reinforcements, Delhi had been retaken.Nevertheless, it then took the better part of 1858 for the rebellion to be completely suppressed in Oudh.
Other regions of Company-controlled India—Bengal province, the Bombay Presidency, and the Madras Presidency—remained largely calm.In Punjab, only recently annexed by the East India Company, the Sikh princes backed the Company by providing both soldiers and support. The large princely states, Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as well as the smaller ones of Rajputana, by not joining the rebellion, served, in the Governor-General Lord Canning's words, as "breakwaters in a storm" for the Company.
In some regions, especially in Oudh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against European presence;however, although the rebel leaders, especially the Rani of Jhansi, became folk heroes in the burgeoning nationalist movement in India half a century later, they themselves "generated no coherent ideology or programme on which to build a new order."
Still, the rebellion proved to be an important watershed in Indian history; it led to the dissolution of the East India Company in 1858, and forced the British to reorganize the army, the financial system, and the administration in India.
India was thereafter directly governed by the British government —originally via the India Office and a cabinet-level Secretary of State for India—in the new British Raj, a system of governance that underwent several reforms prior to Indian independence in 1947
Beginning of the Uprising
- In 1856, the British authorities decided to replace the old fashioned musket (called, the ‘Brown Bess’) by the new ‘Enfield Rifle’. The cartridges to be used in the rifle were greased with fat. The loading process of the Enfield rifle involved bringing the cartridge to the mouth and biting off the top greased paper with the mouth.
- A rumor spread out, that the cartridges were greased with the fat of pigs and cows. Soldiers believed that, these cartridges were intentionally greased with animal fat to hurt their religious sentiments.
- The revolt first began at Barrackpore, when most of the Indian soldiers refused to use the greased cartridges. As a result, a Brahmin soldier of the 34th Native Infantry at Barrackpore, named Mangal Pandey led an attack on the adjunct of 34th Native Infantry on 29th March, 1857.
- After the incident, Mangal Pandey was arrested and hanged on 8th April, 1857. Within a month of this incidence, uprisings started in Meerut, Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi and at many other places.
Events at Meerut
The mutiny started at Meerut on 10th May 1857. The occasion was the punishment of some sepoys for their refusal to use the greased cartridges. They broke open jails, murdered Europeans, burnt their houses and marched to Delhi. They seized the city and proclaimed the aged Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II as the Emperor of India.Events at Delhi
After reaching Delhi, they killed many British soldiers and surrounded the entire city. The loss Delhi, lowered the respect of the British army. So, in order to achieve their respect again, Sir John Nicholson besieged Delhi with the help of loyal Sikh soldiers. In the end, the British surmounted Delhi and the old emperor Bahadur Shah was taken prisoner. As a punishment, he was ordered life imprisonment and deported to Rangoon, where he died in 1862.Events at Lucknow
Begum Hazrat Mahal, the wife of the Nawab of Awadh let the uprising at Lucknow on 30th May, 1857. The city was recaptured by the British in March 1858. Begum Hazrat Mahal fled towards the Nepal Frontier.Events at Kanpur
The War of Independence was led by Nana Sahib at Kanpur. He wanted to get his pension from the government, which they were paying to the last Peshwa Baji Rao II. But now the British refused to grant it. Nana Sahib was the adopted son of the last Peshwa Baji Rao II and at that time there was a policy called the Doctrine of Lapse applied by the Governor-General Lord Dalhousie.Lord Dalhousie annexed few states like – Jhansi, Udaipur, Kanpur, Satara etc , by using this policy. Being a brave and determined General, Nana Sahib opposed this policy. But in the end, on 17th June, 1857 General Havelock captured Kanpur after defeating Nana Sahib.
Administrative Causes :
The Indians disliked and distrusted the administration of the British. For example, the replacement of Persian language by English as the court language was not liked by the people. The judicial system of the British was costly, mechanical and involved much time. The poor could draw no advantage from it. The rich disliked it because they could be brought to trial even by appeals of the common men who had been subservient to them for centuries. The police system of the British was not effective by that time. The people always felt insecure of their property, life and honour. The most affected part of British administration was the revenue system. Under the British the peasants and the landlords suffered equally. The peasants had to pay heavy revenue taxes. The landlords were devoid of their special privileges. The British excluded the Indians from all high civil and military jobs. So the educated Indians who expected to get gainful employment in the service of the company were disappointed.
Economic Causes :
Economic Causes :
The economic exploitation of the country, the huge drain of wealth and the disappearance of the native industries dislocated the economic life of the people in India. The British crippled Indian trade and manufacture. They imposed heavy protective duties in Britain while British goods were imported into India at a nominal duty. The machine made British goods flooded the Indian markets and ruined Indian manufacture. With the disappearance of the old aristocratic Zamindars and rulers, the Indian artisans and craftmen lost their patronage. The Indian weavers and handicraftsmen were forced to work according to the desires of the servants of the company. They in return received very little wages. Naturally they lost their interest. It destroyed the cotton textile industry of India which was the largest and most beneficial industry. Thousands of people who held administrative posts under the Indian rulers were deposed. Loss of employment affected others who were dependent on those employees for their livelihood. Lord Bentinck’s resumption of rent-free tenures reduced the landowners to poverty. The English abolished several intermediaries like Jagirdars and Taluqdars. The out-break of seven famines in the first half of the nineteenth century made the economic distress more acute.
Social Causes :
The British regarded the Indians as an inferior race. They exhibited racial arrogance. They showed contempt in their dealing with the Indians. The Indians could not travel in first class train compartments. They were kept away from all social gatherings. They were not allowed to mix up with the English men. The conservative section of the Indians were alarmed by the rapid spread of Western culture and English education in India. Measures like the suppression of Sati and female infanticide, remarriage of widows and the right of inheritance to Christian converts offended the Indian orthodox sentiments.
Religious Causes :
The Christian missionaries were active in propagating Christianity. These activities created a sense of fear in the minds of the Indians. They suspected that the British were out to destroy their religions and convert India into a Christian land. R.D. Mangles, a member of the British Parliament, declared openly that ‘Every British must try his utmost to convert every Indian to Christianity and the banner of Christ should wave triumphant from one end of India to the other. This declaration created a great anger and disbelief against the British rule. Religious sentiments were aroused when the British imposed taxes on the lands belonging to temples and mosques. The priests and the maulvis showed their discontent against the British rule. All these activities made the British unpopular.
Military Causes :
The Indian soldiers were called the Sepoys. They constituted the majority of the British army in India. In fact, the sword of the British power rested on the loyalty and strength of these Indian Sepoys. But they were treated with contempt and made to feel inferior by the British. They were paid less than their British counterparts. The Indian sepoys had no chance of promotion in the army. They were prohibited from their traditional religious practices like wearing a saffron mark on their forehead, growing beard and wearing turbans. Lord Cannings’ Government passed in 1856, “The General Services Enlistment Act”. It compelled the Indian Sepoys to serve abroad, if there was need. They had to cross the seas. It made them angry against the British.
Immediate Cause :
There were about 40,000 British soldiers in the army and the number of Indians exceeded two lakhs. This numerical superiority made the sepoys feel that they could easily throw the English out if they acted unitedly. The Sepoys who were discontented by the English policies had a reason to feel alarmed.The immediate cause was the introduction of new
enfield rifles by the British. The cartridges were greased by animal fat. The bullets had thick covering which had to be bitten off before loading. Believing that the fat of cow and pig had been used to grease these cartridges both the Hindu and Muslim sepoys refused to use them. They thought that this would offend their religious tradition because the cow is sacred to the Hindus and the pig is detestable to the Muslims. On 29 March 1857 at Barrackpore, near Kolkata, Mangal Pandey, a young Indian Sepoy from Bengal Regiment, refused to use the greased cartridge, and shot down his sergeant. He was arrested, tried and executed. When this news spread many sepoys started the revolt.
The course of the Revolt : 
enfield rifles by the British. The cartridges were greased by animal fat. The bullets had thick covering which had to be bitten off before loading. Believing that the fat of cow and pig had been used to grease these cartridges both the Hindu and Muslim sepoys refused to use them. They thought that this would offend their religious tradition because the cow is sacred to the Hindus and the pig is detestable to the Muslims. On 29 March 1857 at Barrackpore, near Kolkata, Mangal Pandey, a young Indian Sepoy from Bengal Regiment, refused to use the greased cartridge, and shot down his sergeant. He was arrested, tried and executed. When this news spread many sepoys started the revolt.
The Sepoys broke out into open revolt at Meerut in April 1857. They refused to touch the greased cartridges. They were courtmartialled and sentenced to ten years rigorous imprisonment. The regiments in Meerut rose in open revolt on 10 May 1857. They broke and opened the prison. They released the imprisoned soldiers and killed every European they saw, many whites were publicly killed. The revolt spread to Kanpur, Lucknow, Nasirabad, benaras and Jhansi. Then they marched to Delhi on 11 May and brought it under their control. They proclaimed the reluctant Bahadur Shah II, the old king of Delhi, as the Emperor. Sepoys from other centres too marched to Delhi. When the emperor expressed his inability to pay the salaries to the soldiers, they looted the treasury at Kanpur and other places. They resorted to many violent acts.
After a long fight, the English army led by John Nicholson, with the help of Sikh sepoys, reconquered Delhi.
this picture is belong to the Last King of mughal empire after 1857 war, His Highness King Bahadur shah Zafar... taking last breaths in prison....
KANPUR INCIDENT:
Nana Saheb
The revolt at Kanpur was led by Nana Saheb, the discontented adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II. He declared himself the Peshwar at Kanpur and kiled the English who had surrendered to him. But the English led by General Havelock recaptured Kanpur on June 17th 1857. Nanasaheb ranaway to Nepal.
A photo of Tantia Topi, said to have been the revolution's best general, after his capture in 1859
The troops of Nana Saheb were led by a loyal and gallant leader Tantia Tope. He recaptured Kanpur but he could not retain it for long. The English laid seige to Jhansi. Tatya Topey hurried to the place with 20,000 Sepoys but was defeated. He escaped to the forests, a traitor called Mansingh helped the British to arrest him. He was sentenced to death.
1857 Army of Nana Saheb & Tatya Tope
REVOLT IN LUCKNOW:
In Lucknow, the revolt was directed by Begum Hazrat Mahal of Oudh.The Sepoys and citizens together revolted in Lucknow. The people declared Wajid Ali's son as the Nawab and Hazarat Mahal herself took the administration. Soon the English recaptured Lucknow and the Begum escaped to Nepal.
REVOLT IN MADHYA PRADESH:
In Central India the revolt was guided by Rani Lakshmi Ba
i of Jhansi. She was one of the greatest patriots of India. Dressed in male attire, she fought like a true soldier with unprecedented courage and military skill. She captured Gwalior. The Queen herself took led the army, mounted on the horseback with her adopted son tied toher back. She fought very bravely till she was killed in the battle in June 1858.
According to the British historians, present at the time of revolt, Rani Lakshmi Bai was the best and the bravest of the leaders of the Revolt of 1857.
i of Jhansi. She was one of the greatest patriots of India. Dressed in male attire, she fought like a true soldier with unprecedented courage and military skill. She captured Gwalior. The Queen herself took led the army, mounted on the horseback with her adopted son tied toher back. She fought very bravely till she was killed in the battle in June 1858.According to the British historians, present at the time of revolt, Rani Lakshmi Bai was the best and the bravest of the leaders of the Revolt of 1857.
At Bareily, the capital of Rohilkhand, the Sepoys revolted. They declared a Rohila Chief as the Governor. Kunwar Singh, the 80 year old landlord of Jagdishpur was the most outstanding military leader of Western Bihar.
The greatest heroes of the revolt were however, the thousands of sepoys, peasants and the artisans who joined the leaders. They fought valiantly with great courage. In some places the civil population rose in revolt. In fact, the participation of peasants, artisans and general population gave the revolt its real strength. It made the revolt a popular uprising. However, the revolt failed to succeed due to effective suppression by the British.
Causes for the failure of the Revolt :
The greatest heroes of the revolt were however, the thousands of sepoys, peasants and the artisans who joined the leaders. They fought valiantly with great courage. In some places the civil population rose in revolt. In fact, the participation of peasants, artisans and general population gave the revolt its real strength. It made the revolt a popular uprising. However, the revolt failed to succeed due to effective suppression by the British.
Causes for the failure of the Revolt :
Various causes led to the failure of the Revolt of 1857.
Lack of Unity : There was no unity among the rebels. The ideas of nationalism and unity had not yet developed. There was no common purpose among the rebels. The Sepoys of Bengal wanted to revive the medieval glories of the Mughals. Nana Saheb and Tantia Tope tried to re-establish the Maratha power. Rani Lakshmi Bai fought to regain her lost State. Secondly, the revolt was not widespread. It took place only in the Northern and Central parts of India. Even Bombay, the Punjab, Sind, Rajastan and South India remained quiet. The British managed to get the loyalty of the Sikhs, Afghans and the Gurkha regiments. The Gurkhas actually helped the British in suppressing the revolt.
Lack of Modern Weapons and Techniques : Mere participation or heroism could not match the latest weapons of the British. The sepoys who joined with the civilians could not face the well organised and well disciplined army of the British. The lack of resources both in trained men and money made the rebels to give up the struggle on many occasions. The Telegraphic system and Postal communications helped the British to speed up their operations.
Leadership : There was lack of good leaders on the part of the Indians. There was no organisation and planning. The rebel leaders were no match to the British Generals. Rani Lakshmi Bai, Tantia Tope and Nana Saheb were courageous but they were not good generals.
The seopoys indulged in looting and dacoities, resulted in the common people loosing their faith in them.
The English had the common goal of protecting their empire. The sepoys didnot have a definite aim, acceptable to all.
Finally the English mastery of the sea enabled them to get timely reinforcement from England.
Results of the Revolt :
1. After the revolt, the English East India Company’s rule came to an end,
2. The administration of India was taken over by the British Crown,
3. By a special Act, both the Board of Directors and the Board of control were abolished. In their place the office of the Secretary of State for India was created. He was assisted by an India council of 15 members,
4. The Indian army was thoroughly reorganized and
5. The policy of ruthless conquests in India was given up. The British realized the mistake of antagonising the rulers of the Indian states.
End of East India Company’s Rule :
The suppression of the revolt in 1858, a new phase appeared in the history of the British rule in India. There were important changes in the British policy towards India. There were administrative changes also.
Act of 1858 and Queen Victoria’s Proclamation :
In August 1858, the British Parliament passed an Act. It put an end to the rule of the East India Company. The British Crown took over the administration. The Governor–General of India was also called as Viceroy. It meant the representative of the Crown. Queen Victoria was the ruler of Britain at that time. A proclamation was issued in her name. Lord Canning, the Governor – General read it out at a Durbar held at Allahabad on 1 November 1858. The Queen’s Proclamation is described as the Magna Carta of
the Indian people. It assured some privileges to Indians. It confirmed the earlier treaties of East India Company with the Princes. It promised to pay due regard to the ancient traditions and customs of India. The right of adoption was given to the Indian princes. The policy of annexation was ended. The Proclamation declared that all Indians would be eligible to enter the administrative services on the basis of their education and ability, irrespective of race and creed.
Unconditional pardon was granted to the rebels except those who had been responsible for the murder of the British during the revolt.
the Indian people. It assured some privileges to Indians. It confirmed the earlier treaties of East India Company with the Princes. It promised to pay due regard to the ancient traditions and customs of India. The right of adoption was given to the Indian princes. The policy of annexation was ended. The Proclamation declared that all Indians would be eligible to enter the administrative services on the basis of their education and ability, irrespective of race and creed.
Unconditional pardon was granted to the rebels except those who had been responsible for the murder of the British during the revolt.
A commemorative plaque in memory of people who died during the Indian Mutiny, or first war of Independence is seen at St. James's Church in New Delhi, 06 May 2007. Concecrated in 1836 St. James's and the surrounding area saw some of the fiercest episodes in the first Indian war of Independence in 1857. Celebrations are underway in India to commemerate the 150th anniversary of the first Indian war of Independence in 1857 - a bloody revolt which was spurred by rumours that the British were introducing bullets greased with cow and pig fat, which upset both Hindus and Muslims for religious reasons. The British crushed the revolt after four months, captured Delhi and exiled the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar to Rangoon, (now the Myanmar city of Yangon) where he died in captivity five years later.
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The below video clip is on Bhagath Singh. Please do watch to know more about this famous freedom fighter who was born on September 28, 1907.
Causes of the revolt of 1857
These are broadly categorized into four parts:
1. Political causes:
A. Doctrine of lapse
•Introduced by Lord Dalhousie.
•Stated thal heirs adopted without the approval of the Compay would only inherit the private property of the owner and the territories would be seized by the Company.
•Examples - Jhansi, Satara, Nagpur, Sambalpur etc seized in this manner.
•This doctrine caused widespread discontentment among Indian rulers.
B. Disrespect to Bahadur Shah Zafar
• Bahadur Shah was the last Mughal ruler of India.
• In 1849, Lord Dalhousie announced that Shah's successor will no longer be permitted to reside at the Red Fort and will have to move to a place near Qutub Minar. It was also declared the successors would be deprived of the right to be called Emperor and would
be regarded as mere princes.
• This decision hurt the sentiments of Muslims
.
C. Treatment meted out to Nana Saheb
• Nana Saheb was the adopted son the last Peshwa - Bajirao II.
• The British refused to grant Nana Saheb the pension they were paying to Baji Rao II
• Nana Saheb had inherited enormous wealth which he utilized in sending emissaries to different parts of the country to gather support for a revolt movement.
• In general, Nana Saheb was annoyed.
D. On the pretext of misrule/mismanagement
• In 1856, Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh under the pretext of alleged misrule.
• The Nawab of Awadh, Wajid Ali Shah was removed from the throne.
• This threw many thousands of nobles, officials, and soldiers out of their job.
• This caused resentment among the people of Awadh, which played a major role in the uprising of 1857.
E. Unpopular Administration
• The Indians could not approach the British
• The British could humiliate Indians
• Indians found themselves out of place with English Laws and English Language
• British officers looked upon Indians as inferior and excluded them from high ranks.
F. Floating Rumours
• A rumor was spread that there's a change in power every hundred years.
• British came to power in 1757; Indians, in 1857, felt that the British rule had come to an end and they ought to be ousted.
• With this belief, the Indians rose in revolt against the British.
2. Socio-Religious cause:
A. SOCIAL CAUSES
1. Interference with social customs
• Reforms like the abolition of Sati was introduced by Lord William Bentick in 1829.
• Widow Remarriage Act was passed and western education was opened to girls. This move was not welcomed by the Indians.
• These social reforms were aimed at improving the conditions of Indian society.
• However, while introducing such reforms the feelings of people were not taken into consideration.
2. Railways and Telegraph
• The introduction of modern innovations such as railways and telegraphs were misunderstood by the people.
• There were rumors that the telegraph poles were erected to hang anti - British people.
• The orthodox Indians noted that in the railway compartments, the high and low castes were made to sit side by side.
• The Indians believed that the British had introduced such reforms to defy their caste and religion.
3. The policy of racial discrimination.
• British officers were rude towards Indians and believed that they could kill them at their own will.
• Indians were not given high posts in British offices.
• Such acts of unjust discrimination alienated the British from Indian masses.
B. RELIGIOUS CAUSES
1. Fears regarding conversions to Christianity
• The activities of the Christian missionaries created a sense of alarm among Hindus and Muslims.
• The teaching of Christian doctrines was made compulsory in the missionary and government schools.
• Bible was introduced in jails, idol worship was criticized and officials openly preached Christian doctrines. The police force was also used for conversion.
• A feeling of panic rose among Indians who believed they would all be converted to Christianity.
2. Fears regarding Western Education
• The shifting of emphasis from oriental learning to Western education was not received well by the Pundits and the Maulvis.
• People started suspecting that the aim of Western education was not to promote literature and Sciences but to encourage their children to become Christians.
3. Law of property and taxing religious places
• The Hindu Law of Property(1850) enabled a convert from Hinduism to other religions to inherit the property of his father.
• The Hindus regarded this as an incentive to give up one's religious
faiths.
• Bathing in holy places, entry into temples and mosques was taxed,
causing discontentment.
3. Economic Causes
1. India reduced to an agro-colony of the British
• The manufacturers in England required other raw materials also such as cotton and oil seeds for their industries so they tried to keep India mainly an agro- colony.
• India was forced to export, at cheaper rates raw materials like -
1) cotton and silk which were urgently needed in British factories, 2) plantation crops and grains which were in short supply in England.
• India was made to accept ready made British goods either duty-free or at nominal duty rates.
2. Ruin of trade and handicrafts
• An Act was passed in 1720 in England which prohibited the use of Indian silks and calicoes in England.
• Heavy duties on Indian silk and cotton textiles in Britain - 70 to 80 percent respectively destroyed such industries.
• By the 1850s cotton and silk, export had practically ceased especially in Dhaka, Murshidabad, and Surat.
3. Impoverishment of cultivators
• Permanent Settlement of 1793 made landlords the absolute owners of their estates giving them the power to eject the cultivators for nonpayment of dues.
• Indigo trade was highly profitable to British but the conditions for the concerned peasants were inhumane.
• The farmers were forced to cultivate only cash crops and not food crops.
• If the farmers planted anything else their crops were burnt and their cattle was confiscated as a part of their punishment.
4. Annexation of Rent-free lands and Other estates.
• In 1852 Inam Commission was appointed to inquire into the title deeds of the owners of large estates.
• Many Zamindars were unable to produce their title deeds on account of the passage of time.
• But the Government did not respond to such pleas and confiscated some 2000 creating a huge wave of discontentment among the people especially of Awadh.
5. Loss of livelihood/Big famines
• Millions of artisans and craftsmen lost their jobs and had no source of income.
• Pandits and Maulvis were in danger of losing their jobs too due to the introduction of western education.
• Famines ravaged the country in the second half of the 19th century.
• The British Government could have at least lessened the misery of the affected people but it did nothing.
4.MILITARY CAUSES
1. Ill-treatment of Indian soldiers
• Indian soldiers helped British East India Company to establish its Empire in India. They were as capable as their British counterparts.
• Still, they were ill-fed and badly houses. They were forbidden fro
adorning any cast or sectarian marks, beard or turbans.
• The sentiments of the Indian sepoys were disregarded.
2. General Service Enlistment Act
• The General Service Enlistment Act (1856) made it possible for the soldiers of Bengal Army to be ready for service
everywhere- inside or outside India.
• This act made it possible for a Brahmin to be sent overseas for duty which was considered a taboo.
• This created immediate alarm in the minds of the personnel of the Army and the Brahmins saw this as a threat to their caste.
3. Low salary and poor prospects of promotion
• All the high ranks in the army were reserved for the British only. The native sepoys could not rise above the rank of Risaldar or Subedar.
• The maximum pay of a Subedar was less than the minimum pay of a raw English recruit.
• This naturally affected the sepoys' morale.
4. Faulty distribution of troops
• Key places like Delhi and Allahabad had no British armies.
• Further, at this point, England was engaged in several other battles like Persian, Chinese, Afghan, and Crimean War respectively.
• The Indian soldiers realized that the British army was in difficulty and so they were determined to strike as there was a very suitable opportunity.
5. Disproportionate distribution of the Indian and British troops
• The Company's troop consisted of 4 times as many Indian soldiers as compared to British soldiers.
• Lord Dalhousie took up efforts to appoint more British soldiers in the army.
• However, he failed to achieve what he intended which gave courage to Indian soldiers to take up arms against the Britishers.
6. Introduction of Enfield Rifle(immediate cause)
• The immediate cause for the war of Independence was the introduction of Enfield Rifles in place of the old Brown
Bess Guns.
• The cartridges to be used for the Enfield Rifles were greased with the fat of cows and pigs.
• The cow is sacred to Hindus and the pig is a taboo to the Muslims.
• Both Muslim and Hindu soldiers refused to use these cartridges and staged an uprising when they were forced to use them.
CONSEQUENCES OF THE WAR
1. End of company's rule
• The war ended East India Company's rule in India and consequently the Better Government Act was passed in
1858 it brought about the following changes in the administrative setup -
1. The Act of 1858 transferred the Government of India from the
Company to the Crown.
2. Company's Board of Control and the Court of Directors were abolished and all their power was transferred to a cabinet minister known as Secretary Of State for India.
3. The Secretary of the Stae was to be assisted by the Indian Council consisting of 15 members.
4. Appointments to the Civil Service were to be made by open competition under rules made by the Secretary of State in
council.
5. The Governer-General received the additional title of Viceroy.
2. Queen Victoria's proclamation
1. Queen Victoria in her proclamation(1858) promised not to
interfere with the religious beliefs of the people in India.
2. She also promised equal treatment to all her subjects, Indians, and Europeans. All appointments would be strictly on the basis of education, ability, and integrity.
3. An official pardon would be granted to all those who took part in the war except such persons who were guilty of the murder of British subjects.
4. The material and Moral advancement of the people would be the
Government's main concern.
3. Policy towards the Indian princes and chiefs
• Queen Victoria declared in 1858 that the British Government would not annex the Indian states
• All the treaties that the Princes had made with the British would be honored and kept. Their rights of adoption and successors were realized too.
• Nana Saheb had fled to jungles of Nepal after taking an active
participation in the War.
• So the office of the Peshwa also came to an end.
• In the same way- with the death of Bahadur Shah II, the Mughal Dynasty came to an end.
4. Policy of divide and rule
• The Government employed the use of Divide and Rule policy after 1858.
• It turned princes against the people, province against province, people against people and above all Hindus against Muslims.
• In the War, the Muslims and Hindus had displayed a great unity in their revolt so the British were skeptical of their growing nearness.
• So it cleverly used Government services to create a split between the two religions.
• The British also encouraged hatred and ill-feeling among the Hindus and the Muslims so that they could never challenge the British Empire again.
5. Economic exploitation of India
• The number of Englishmen in India, both private individuals and members of services, increased.
• India was turned into a typical colonial economy, exporting raw material and importing finished goods.
• There was a rapid rise in the indebtedness of the peasants under the British Rule.
• The British invested their surplus capital in India, in railways, plantations, coal mines, jute mills, shipping, etc
6. Reorganization of the Army • The proportion of the British to Indian soldiers were increased.
• Artillery and other effective weapons of warfare were reserved for the British troops in India.
• All key positions in the army were exclusively reserved for the British.
• Indian soldiers belonging to different castes and creeds were mixed up in a manner that no sentiment of unity could arise among them.
Short Notes
First War of Independence, 1857
Immediate Cause --> * Soldiers made to bite off ends of greased cartridges in ‘Enfield Rifles’ having fat of cows and pigs
* Barrackpore – Mangal Pande refused to use catridges and attacked Adjutant of his regiment, for fear of moss of his
caste and religion. (Arrested and hanged on 8th April, 1857)
Events --> Delhi
* Revolutionaries killed British soldiers, captured Delhi, and proclaimed Bahadur Shah II the ruler of India.
* British adamant on recapturing Delhi; Sir John Nicholson along with loyal Sikh soldiers captured Delhi after four months.
* Bahadur Shah sentenced to life imprisonment; Two sons were killed before him. – End of Mughal Rule
Kanpur
* Led by Nana Sahib, adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.
* General Havelock captured Kanpur after defeating Nana Sahib, on 17th June, 1857; Nana Sahib fled to Nepal.
* Tantia Tope captured Kanpur, but was defeated by the British.
Lucknow
* Led by Begum of Oudh; Sir Henry Lawrence shot dead.
* Defeated and recaptured by Sir Colin Campbell in 1858.
Central India
* Led by Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi and Tantia Tope.
* Occupied Gwalior
Causes --> Military
* General Service Enlistment Act, 1856
* Numerical Strength of Indian Soldiers
* Effect of Annexation of Oudh
* Unjust Treatment
* Loss of British Prestige in Afghan War
Religious
* Social and Religious Reforms – Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Raja Rammohan Roy
* Introduction of Railways and Telegraphs
* Government Support to Missionaries
* Introduction of New Laws – Lord Dalhousie
* Introduction of Modern Education
Economic
* Exploitation of Natural Resources
* Subordination of Indian Industry
* Collapse of Handicrafts and Cottage Industries
* Economic Draining of India
* Unemployment among People
* Resumption of Tax-free Lands – Confiscation by Lord Dalhousie; Introduction by Lord William Bentinck
* Unemployment, Poverty, and Famine
Political
* Policy of Annexation – Doctrine of Lapse; Lord Dalhousie; Annexed Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur.
* The Annexation of Oudh – Lord Dalhousie
* Disrespect shown to Bahadur Shah
* Disrespect to Nana Sahib and Rani of Jhansi
* Disbanding the Armies of the Annexed States
* Inefficient Handling of the Situation – Corrupt and greedy British officials.
* Spreading of a Rumor – Belief that rulers in India change after every 100 years.
Consequences --> End of Company’s Rule
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