INDIAN GOVT AND POLITICS-SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

INDIAN GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIANCONSTITUTION
The task of framing a constitution of a sovereign democratic nation is performed by a representative body of its people. Such a body elected by the people for the purpose of considering and adopting a constitution may be known as the Constituent Assembly. The constitution of India was framed by the Constituent Assembly (1946-49). Dr. Rajendra Prasad was its President and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee. The constitution of India is the product of efforts of the members of the Constituent Assembly.

The following are the salient features of the constitution of India:
1. Preamble
2. Written constitution
3. Rigid constitution
4. Federal system
5. Secular state
6. Parliamentary democracy
7. Fundamental rights
8. Directive principles of state policy
9. Fundamental duties
10. Judicial review
11. Universal adult franchise.

PREAMBLE
The constitution of India starts with a Preamble. The objective of the constitution is precisely given in the Preamble. It serves as a guide to interpret the provisions of the constitution. It is not a part of the constitution and hence not subject to judicial review.

According to the text of the preamble as it stands today after the forty second amendment Act of 1976:

The Preamble of the Indian constitution reads as follows:, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to Constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens:

JUSTICE, social, economic and political;

LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation:

IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty - sixth day of November, 1949 do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.

WRITTEN CONSTITUTION
A written constitution is one in which most of the basic rules and regulations are written down in a document. Indian constitution is a written one. It is lengthy also. The constitution of India came into force on 26, January, 1950. From that day onwards the Indians are celebrating 26 January of every year as Republic Day. The constitutions of Great Britain, Ireland, Canada and Australia were major sources for the Indian constitution. The framers of the Indian constitution borrowed from the constitutions of other countries keeping in mind the needs and conditions of India.

RIGID CONSTITUTION
According to Prof. Dicey, a rigid constitution is one under which certain laws generally known as constitutional or fundamental laws cannot be changed in the same manner as the ordinary laws are changed. Constitutional laws refer to those provisions of the constitution. Ordinary laws are those laws enacted by the Parliament with reference to the provisions of the constitution. The constitutional laws are placed above the ordinary law. A special procedure is prescribed in the Indian constitution to amend the provisions. Some of the provisions of the Indian constitution can be amended easily and the procedure is difficult for some others. Hence, our constitution consists of features of both flexible and rigid constitutions.

FEDERAL SYSTEM
Federalism is a system of government in which powers are
divided and distributed between the Central Government and State
Governments. Our constitution has the following federal features:-
1. Supremacy of the constitution
2. Rigid constitution
3. Division of powers
4. Independent judiciary
SECULAR STATE
The Indian constitution establishes a secular state. It means
there will be complete freedom to follow any religion. It guarantees to
all citizens freedom of faith, worship and conscience. It also means
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equal respect for all religions. The basis of secularism is ethics and to
bring about a society of equality and justice.
PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRACY
The constitution of India provides for a parliamentary system
of government. It is also known as responsible government or cabinet
government.
A parliamentary form of government is that in which the
executive is responsible to the legislature. The executive of India has
two divisions. One is the nominal and the other is real. In India, the
nominal executive is the President of India. He is elected by an electoral
college for a period of five years. The real executive is the Prime Minister
and Council of Ministers. In a parliamentary form of government there
is individual responsibility as well as collective responsibility of the
members of the Council of Ministers. The constitution of India provides
a bicameral legislature consisting of the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha.
While Lok Sabha contains representatives directly elected by the people
on the basis of universal adult franchise, the Rajya Sabha mainly consists of representatives of the States.

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
Part III of the Indian constitution consists of Fundamental Rights
(Articles 12 to 35). These are indispensable for the growth of human
personality. They not only create proper conditions for the fullest
development of an individual, but also help in realising true democracy.
These rights ensure equality of all citizens in the eyes of law. Fundamental Rights maintain proper balance between the individual interests and the public good.

Right to Equality Right to Freedom
Right to Freedom of Religion
Right against Exploitation
Cultural and Educational Rights
Right to
Constitutional
Remedies
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The constitution of India classified the Fundamental Rights under
six groups as follows: -
(a) Right to Equality
(b) Right to Freedom
(c) Right against Exploitation
(d) Right to Freedom of Religion
(e) Cultural and Educational Rights
(f) Right to constitutional Remedies
Right to property - has been abolished by the 44th Amendment
Act, 1978.
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
Part IV of the Indian constitution consists of Directive Principles
of State Policy (Articles 36 to 51). They are fundamental in the
governance of the country. Directive Principles of State Policy act as
a guide to the State and it is the duty of the State to apply these Principles
in making laws. They aim at the establishment of a welfare state in our
country.
Principles
Directive Principles of State Policy may be grouped into
following categories:
I. Socialist Principles
II. Gandhian Principles
III. International Principles
IV. Miscellaneous Principles
I. Socialist Principles
1. adequate means of livelihood for citizens, men and
women equally
2. equal pay for equal work.
II. Gandhian Ideologies:
Gandhiji

1. organisation of village panchayats to enable them to
functions as units of self-government.
2. promote cottage industries on an individual or co-operative
basis in rural areas.
3. promotion of educational and economic interest of
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker
sections.
4. raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living
and to improve public health.
5. organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry
6. preserving and improving the breeds and prohibiting
the slaughter of cows and calves and other milch and
draught cattle.
III. International Principles
1. promote international peace and security
2. maintain just and honourable relations between nations
IV. Miscellaneous Principles
1. equal justice and free legal aid
2. uniform civil code for the citizens
Fundamental Duties
The Forty-Second Amendment Act of 1976 added Part IV
A (Article 51A) in the Indian constitution containing ten duties for
all the citizens of India. According to former Prime Minister of
India Mrs. Gandhi, moral value of the fundamental duties would
be “not to smother rights but to establish a democratic balance” by
making the people conscious of their duties equally as they are
conscious of their rights.
(a) to abide by the constitution and respect its ideals and
institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our
national struggle for freedom
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity
of India
(d) to defend the country and render national service when
called upon to do so
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common
brotherhood amongst all the people of India
transcending religious, linguistic, and regional or
sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory
to dignity of women
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite
culture
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment
including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to
have compassion for living creatures
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the
spirit of inquiry and reform
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual
and collective activity so that the nation constantly rises
to higher levels of endeavour and achievement
JUDICIAL REVIEW
Our constitution provides independence to judiciary. The
Supreme Court and the High Courts in India enjoy the power of
Judicial Review. The power of judiciary to declare law as
unconstitutional and to interpret provisions of ordinary laws enacted
by legislatures is called Judicial Review. Judiciary acts as a
guardian of the constitution. Judiciary protects the rights and
freedoms of the Indian citizens.

UNIVERSAL ADULT FRANCHISE
The constitution of India has introduced universal adult franchise.
All the adults above the age of 18 years, irrespective of their castes,
colour and or sex are entitled to participate in the election.
7.2 ORGANISATION OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
7.2.1 PRESIDENT
The President is the first citizen of India. He is the Head of the
State. Dr. A.P.J.Abdul Kalam is the present President of India.
Qualifications for election as President
1. He should be a citizen of India.
2. He must have completed the age of 35 years.
3. He should be qualified to become the member of the Lok
Sabha.
4. He should not hold any office of profit under the
government.
Election of President
The President is elected by members of an electoral college
consisting of:-
1. The elected members of both Houses of Parliament.
2. The elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of
the States.
The election of the President of India is in accordance with
the system of proportional representation by means of single
transferable vote. The system of secret ballot is adopted for the
election of the President.
The President of India is elected for a period of five years.
He is eligible for re-election for a second term.
Procedure for Impeachment of the President
The President of India can be removed from office by
impeachment for violation of the constitution. Impeachment has
to be approved by both the House of Parliament. One fourth of the
total members of a House can give notice at least fourteen days in
advance of their intention to impeach the President. The charges,
Organisational S tructure of
Union G overnment
Pre sident
Vice P re s id ent
P rim e M inister
C ab inet
Pa rliam en t
(N om in al E xecutiv e)
(R e a l E xecutive )
L o k S abha R ajy a S abh a
C om m ittee s o f
R ajy a S abh a
C om m ittee s o f
L o k S abha
Jo in t C om m ittee s o f
b o th th e H ou ses
if approved by two-thirds majority will be referred to the other House
for investigation. If the investigating House also approves the charges
with two-thirds majority, the President shall stand impeached and will
vacate his office, on the date on which such a resolution is passed.
Powers of the President of India
1. Executive Powers
The executive power of the Union is vested in the President
and is exercised by him either directly or through officers
subordinate to him in accordance with the constitution. There is a
Council of Ministers to aid and advise the President in the exercise
of his functions. All executive powers of the Union government
are exercised in the name of President.
The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and on
the advice of the Prime Minister other Ministers of the Union are
appointed by the President. The President appoints the Attorney -
General of India, Comptroller and Auditor - General of India,
Ambassadors, High Commissioners and other diplomatic
representatives to foreign countries, the Chief Justice and other
Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts, Governors of
States, Lt. Governors, Chairman and members of the Union Public
Service Commission, Election Commission. The President is the
Supreme Commander of the Armed forces. He appoints the Chief
of Staff of Army, Navy and the Air Force.
The President has the power to remove the Ministers on
the advice of the Prime Minister. He can remove the Chairman or
a member of the Union Public Service Commission only on the
basis of the report of the Supreme Court. He can remove a Judge
of the Supreme Court or the Election Commissioner only on the
basis of decisions taken by the Parliament by a special majority in
both the Houses.

It may be observed that though formally all the executive powers
are vested in the President, he exercises them on the advice of the
Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers. Earlier it was not obligatory
for the President to accept this advice but the Forty-Second
Amendment Act, 1976 made it obligatory for the President to exercise
his functions in accordance with the advice of the Council of Ministers.
However, under the Forty-Fourth Amendment Act, 1978 the President
has been authorised to refer back the matter to the Council of Ministers
for reconsideration. But if the Council of Ministers after such
reconsideration tenders any advice to the President, the President has
to abide by the same.
2. Legislative Powers
The President of India summons the Parliament atleast twice a
year. President prorogues or terminates the sessions of both or any of
the Houses of Parliament. He is empowered to dissolve the Lok Sabha.
The President nominates twelve members to the Rajya Sabha,
from among the distinguished persons in the field of art, science, literature
and social service. He can also nominate not more than two members
to the Lok Sabha from among the Anglo-Indian Community if in his
opinion that community is not adequately represented therein.
President addresses the Parliament. He may address the jointsitting
of both the Houses or any of its Houses separately. He can
convene a joint sitting of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha to resolve
the dispute if any.
No bill passed by the Parliament can become a law, without
the assent or approval of the President. The President is empowered
to issue an ordinance when the Parliament is not in session.
3. Financial Powers
No money bill can be introduced in the Parliament without the
recommendation of the President. The constitution of India places the
Contingency Fund of India at the disposal of the President who is
authorized to make advances out of it to meet the unforeseen expenditure
pending its final authorization by the Parliament. Every five year, the
President appoints a Finance Commission.
4. Judicial Powers
The President has the power to grant pardon, reprieve or
remission of punishment. He has the right to seek advice of the
Supreme Court on a matter involving constitution and law.
5. Emergency Powers
The President of India is vested with emergency powers.
They are as follows:-
(a) emergency due to war or external aggression or armed
rebellion (Article : 352)
(b) emergency due to failure of constitutional machinery
in States (Article : 356)
(c) financial emergency. (Article : 360)
Vice - President of India
The Vice-President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of
the Rajya Sabha. In the event of the occurrence of any vacancy in
the office of the President by reason of his death, resignation or
removal, or otherwise, the Vice-President acts as the President until
the date on which a new President takes charge. When the President
is unable to discharge his functions owing to absence, illness or
any other cause, the Vice-President shall discharge his functions
until the date on which the President resumes his duties.
Qualifications
1. He should be a citizen of India
2. He must have completed the age of 35 years
3. He should possess the qualifications to become the
member of the Rajya Sabha.
4. He should not hold any office of profit under the
government.
Election of the Vice - President
The Vice - President of India is elected by the members of
an electoral college consisting of the members of both Houses of
Parliament.
Term of Office of Vice-President
The Vice - President of India is elected for a period of five
years. He is eligible for re-election. The Vice-President may resign
before the expiry of his term. Parliament can remove him from
office. At least fourteen days notice is necessary for this purpose.
If Rajya Sabha passes a resolution for removal of Vice-President
by a majority of its total membership and if Lok Sabha also agrees
to it, the Vice-President shall be removed from office.
As the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha, the Vice-President
presides over the meetings of the House. As the Presiding Officer,
the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha is the unchallenged guardian of
the prestige and dignity of the House. He is also the principle
spokesman of the House and represents the collective voice to the
outside world. He ensures that the proceedings of the House are
conducted in accordance with the relevant constitutional provisions,
roles, practices and conventions and that decorum is maintained
in the House.
The Office of the Vice-President is one of the unique
features of the constitution of India. It has no exact parallel in the
countries of other democratic constitutions of the world.
7.2.2 PRIME MINISTER
The Prime Minister is the Head of the Government. He is the
real executive. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President. The
President invites the leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha to
become the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister of India is
1. Leader of the majority party
2. Leader of the Cabinet
3. Leader of the Parliament
4. Link between the President and Council of Ministers
5. Link between the President and Parliament
6. The Chief Spokesman of the Nation
7. Responsible for running the administration of the country
8. Responsible for conduct of international relations.
The Prime Minister is described as the ‘Keystone of the
Cabinet Arch’ and ‘First among equals’. Professor Harold J.
Laski called him ‘The pivot of the whole system of Government’.
Sir Ivor Jennings described him as ‘The Sun around which the
planets revolve’.
Features of Cabinet
In the parliamentary government, the cabinet is described
as the committee of parliament. The cabinet brings together the
executive and legislative branches. Bagehot defines cabinet as a
hyphen that joins, the buckle that binds the executive and legislative
departments together. The features of cabinet are as follows:-
1. Cabinet real executive
2. Real executive drawn from parliament
3. Link between the real executive and the legislature
4. Leadership of the Prime Minister
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5. Political homogeneity
6. Cabinet responsible to the legislature
7. Executive subordinate to the legislature
8. Party government
9. Ministerial individual and collective responsibility
10. Opposition party
11. Cabinet secrecy.
Functions of Cabinet:
1. Policy Determining Function
The Cabinet is a deliberative and policy formulating body. It
discusses and decides all sorts of national and international problems
confronting the country.
2. Supreme Control of the National Executive:
The Cabinet is the supreme national executive. It superintends,
supervises and directs the work of the civil servants all over the Union.
3. The Cabinet as a Co-ordinator
The function of the Cabinet is to co-ordinate and guide the
functions of the several ministers or Departments of Government.
4. Control Over Finance
The Cabinet is responsible for the whole expenditure of
the State and for raising necessary revenues to meet it.
5. Control Over Appointments
Appointments do not normally come before the Cabinet
for discussion. But all major appointments as those of Governors,
Ambassadors and other appointments to key positions must be
mentioned in the Cabinet before they are made public.
7.2.3 COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
There are two categories of members in the Council of Ministers.
They are Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State. The Cabinet is
comparatively a smaller body and the most powerful organ of the
government. The Cabinet Ministers are incharge of important portfolios
and form the inner circle of the Council of Ministers. They attend the
meetings of the Cabinet and take the major policy decisions. Ministers
of State come next to the Cabinet Ministers. There are some ministers
of State who hold independent charge of the department and others
assist the Cabinet Ministers. Ministers of State cannot attend the Cabinet
meetings except when invited or items of business pertaining to their
departments are discussed in the meetings.
COMPOSITION OF UNION MINISTRY
PRIME M INISTER
CABINET M INISTERS
MINISTERS O F STATE MINISTERS O F STATE
(with independen t charge) (Attached with C ab inet M in isters)
The Prime Minister’s Office (PMO)
The PMO provides secretarial assistance to the Prime Minister.
It is headed by the Principal Secretary to Prime Minister. The PMO
includes the anti-corruption unit and the public wing dealing with
grievances.
The subject-matter of files required to be submitted to the Prime
Minister depends on whether he is holding direct charge of the Ministry
123 124
or whether there is a Cabinet Minister or Minister of State (Independent
Charge) in charge of the Ministry.
In the case of the latter, most matters are dealt with by the
Cabinet Minister / Minister of State-in-charge. Only important policy
issues, which the Minister concerned feels should be submitted to the
Prime Minister for orders or information, are received in the PMO.
In cases where the Prime Minister is the Minister-in-charge,
matters requiring Ministerial approval not delegated to the Minister of
State / Deputy Minister, if any, are submitted for orders. The Prime
Minister has traditionally been the Minister-in-charge of the Departments
of Space, Atomic Energy, and Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances
and Pensions.
Since the Prime Minister is Chairman of the Planning
Commission, relevant files are forwarded to the PMO for his
comments and clearance.
Some of the important matters that require the Prime
Minister’s personal attention include the following:
(a) Important defence-related issues;
(b) All important policy issues;
(c) All important decisions relating to the Cabinet
Secretariat;
(d) Appointments to State Administrative Tribunals and
the Central Administrative Tribunal, UPSC, Election
Commission, Appointment of members of statutory/
constitutional Committees, Commissions attached to
various Ministries;
(e) All policy matters relating to the administration of the
Civil Services and administrative reforms;
7.2.4 SPEAKER
The constitution provides for a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker
for the Lok Sabha and a Chairman and a Deputy Chairman for the
Rajya Sabha. The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker are chosen by
the Lok Sabha from among its members. In the absence of the Speaker
in the House, the Deputy Speaker discharges the functions of the
Speaker.
Generally speaking, the position of the Speaker in India more
or less corresponds to that of the Speaker of the House of Commons.
His office is one of prestige and authority. He is the head of Lok Sabha.
The smooth and orderly conduct of the business of the House is primarily
his responsibility. Within the House and in all maters connected with
the House, his word is final. He does not vote in the House except
when there is an equality of votes
Whenever, in the event of final disagreement between the
Houses on a legislative measure a joint sitting is called, he presides
over such a joint sitting and all the rules of procedure in such a
sitting operate under his directions and orders.
The Speaker or Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha vacates his
office if he ceases to be a member of the House, he can resign by
writing to the Deputy Speaker/Speaker and he can be removed by
a resolution of the House, with 14 days’ notice, passed by a majority
of all the then members of the House. Irrespective of the dissolution
of the House, the Speaker, however, continues in office until
immediately before the first sitting of the new House.
7.2.5 Parliament – Rajya Sabha
It consists of not more than 250 members. Out of these, 12
are nominated by the President for their special knowledge or
practical experience in the fields of literature, science, art and social
service. The remaining 238 seats are allocated to various States
and Union Territories. The number of seats allocated varies from
State to State in proportion to their population. Elections to the
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Rajya Sabha are indirect. Members representing states are elected by
elected members of legislative assemblies of the states in accordance
with the system of proportional representation by means of single
transferable vote and those representing Union Territories are chosen
in such a manner as Parliament may by law prescribe. The Rajya Sabha
is not subject to dissolution. Its members are elected for a period of 6
years and one-third of its members retire on expiry of every second
year.
The Vice-President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of the
Rajya Sabha. In addition, the House elects a Deputy Chairman from
among its members. The Deputy Chairman presides over the meeting
of the House in the absence of the Vice-President.
7.2.6 Parliament-Lok Sabha
According to the constitution, the strength of Lok Sabha should
not be more than 552 members - 530 members to represent States, 20
to represent Union Territories and not more than 2 members of Anglo-
Indian Community to be nominated by the President, if in his opinion,
that community is not adequately represented in the House. The number
of members of each State to be elected is determined on the basis of
the population. At present, the Lok Sabha consists of 545 members.
Term of the Lok Sabha, unless dissolved is five years. However
while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation, this period may be
extended by Parliament by law for a period not exceeding one year at
a time and not exceeding, in any case, beyond a period of six months
after the Proclamation has ceased to operate.
The Presiding Officer of the Lok Sabha is the Speaker. He is
elected by the House at its first meeting from among its own members.
In addition, the House also elects a Deputy Speaker who discharges
the duties of the Speaker during his absence or leave.
In order to be chosen as a member of Parliament, a person
must be a citizen of India and not less than 30 years of age in case
of the Rajya Sabha and not less than 25 years of age in case of the
Lok Sabha. Additional qualifications may be prescribed by
Parliament by law. A person can become a member of the Lok Sabha
from any of the constituencies in the country. For the membership of
the Rajya Sabha, he should be a registered voter in the State he
represents.
Sessions of Parliament
According to the constitution, the Parliament has at least two
sessions every year. The President summons the Parliament in a manner
that the time gap between two sessions is not more than six months. In
practice, the Parliament normally meets three times a year. These
sessions are called:
(a) Budget Session which is normally summoned in February
(b) Monsoon Session which ordinarily meets in July and
(c) Winter Session, which commences in November.
In the first session of the year i.e. Budget Session, the President
addresses both the Houses of Parliament assembled together. In this
session besides other work, the Railway Budget and the General Budget
are also discussed and adopted.
Functions of Parliament
1. Parliament of India has the functions of legislation
2. Overseeing of administration
3. Passing of budget
4. Ventilation of public grievances
5. Discussion of various subjects like development plans,
international relations and national policies.
Distribution of powers between the Union and States,
followed in the constitution, emphasizes in many ways general
predominance of Parliament in legislative field. Apart from widerange
of subjects even in normal times Parliament can, under certain
circumstances, assume legislative power, a subject falling within the
sphere exclusively reserved for the States. Parliament is also vested
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be introduced in Lok Sabha. Also it is Lok Sabha which
grants the money for running the administration of the
country.
4. Rajya Sabha has special powers to declare that it is
necessary and expedient in the national interest that
Parliament may make laws with respect to a matter in
the State List or to create by law one or more all-India
services common to the Union and the States.
7.2.7 Supreme Court
For the entire republic of India, there is one unified judicial
system – one hierarchy of courts – with the Supreme Court as the
highest or the Apex Court and as the only arbiter in nature of
relations between the union and the states.
The Supreme Court of India consists of a Chief Justice and
25 other Judges. The Chief Justice and the Judges are appointed
by the President in consultation with such of the Judges of the
Supreme Court and the High Courts in the States.
According to the constitution a person is eligible for
appointment as Judge of the Supreme Court only if:
1. He is a citizen of India
2. He has been for at least five years a Judge of a High
Court or of two or more such Courts in succession, or
3. He has been for at least ten years an advocate of a
High Court or of two or more such Courts in succession
or
4. He is, in the opinion of the President, a distinguished
jurist.
The judges of the Supreme Court hold office until they
attain the age of 65 years.
The Supreme Court has its permanent seat in Delhi. However,
with powers to impeach President and to remove judges of Supreme
Court and High Court, Chief Election Commissioner and Comptroller
and Auditor-General in accordance with the procedure laid down in
the constitution.
All legislations require consent of both Houses of Parliament.
In case of money bills, however the will of the Lok Sabha prevails.
Money Bills can be delayed by the Rajya Sabha only for 14 days.
Delegated legislation is also subject to review and control by Parliament.
Besides power to legislate, the constitution vests in Parliament power
to initiate amendment of the constitution. Article 368 deals with the
power of the Parliament to amend the constitution and the procedure
there of.
The Parliament exercises control over the executive through
asking questions and supplementary questions, moving motions
of adjournment, discussing and passing resolutions, discussing and
passing censure motion or vote of no-confidence.
Functions of Parliament are not only varied in nature, but
considerable in volume. Time at its disposal is limited. It can
therefore, give close consideration to all legislative and other maters
that come up before it. A good deal of business is, therefore,
transacted in Committees.
Difference between Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha
1. Members of Lok Sabha are directly elected by the people
(eligible voters). Members of Rajya Sabha are elected by
the elected members of State Legislative Assemblies in
accordance -with the system of proportional representation
by means of single transferable vote.
2. The normal life of every Lok Sabha is 5 years only while
Rajya Sabha is a permanent body.
3. Lok Sabha is the House to which the Council of Ministers
is responsible under the constitution. Money Bills can only
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the court can sit at such other place or places which may be decided by
the Chief Justice of India with the approval of the President of India.
Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court
1. Original Jurisdiction
The constitution of India vests the Supreme Court with
original and exclusive jurisdiction in any dispute:
(a) between the Government of India and one or more
states, or
(b) between the Government of India and any State or
States on one side and one or more other States on the
other, or
(c) between two or more States,
2. Appellate jurisdiction
The Supreme Court is the final appellate Court in the
country. The Supreme Court hears appeals against the judgements
of the High Courts of States in both civil and criminal cases. Such
a case can be brought before the Supreme Court only if the High
Court certifies that the case involves a substantial question of law
as to the interpretation of the constitution.
Even if the certificate is not granted by the High Court, the
Supreme Court has the right to grant special leave to appeal from
any judgement, decree, determination, sentence or order in any
case or matter passed or made by any Court or tribunals in the
territory of India.
In the civil cases an appeal can be made to the Supreme
Court against the judgement of the High Court.
In the criminal cases an appeal against the judgement of
final order or sentence in a criminal proceeding of a High Court in the
territory of India can be taken to the Supreme Court.
3. Advisory Jurisdiction
The constitution confers on the President the power to refer to
the Supreme Court any question of law or fact which in his opinion is of
public importance.
4. Writ Jurisdiction
Article 32 is the soul and heart of the constitution, because, it
safeguards the rights, liberty and privileges of every citizen of India in
terms of writs. As such, the Supreme Court has the writ Jurisdiction.
There are five writs, namely Habeas corpus, Mandamus, prohibition,
certiorari and Quo-warranto with the following explanations.
1. Habeas corpus: The words Habeas corpus literally mean
to have body’. A writ of habeas corpus is in the nature of an order
calling upon the person who has been detained another to produce
the latter before the court, in order to let court know on what ground
he has been confined and set him free if there is no legal justification
from the imprisonment. This is a very powerful safeguard to the
subject against arbitrary acts not only of private individuals but
also of the executive.
2. Mandamus: Mandamus literally means a command. It
demands some activity on the party of the body or person to whom
it is addressed. In short, it commands the person to whom it is
addressed. In short, it commands the person to whom it is addressed
to perform some public or quasi-public legal duty which he has
refused to perform and the performance of which can not be
enforced by any other adequate legal remedy. The writ is also
available against the subordinate courts or other judicial bodies
when they have refused to exercise their jurisdiction and thus to
perform their duty.
3. Prohibition: This writ is issued by the Supreme Court or
High Court to an subordinate court forbidding the latter to continue
proceedings therein in excess of its jurisdiction or to usurp a jurisdiction
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with which it is not legally vested. In other words, the object of the writ
is to compel subordinate courts to keep themselves within the limits of
their jurisdiction. The writ of prohibition differs from the writ of mandamus
in the following ways.
(a) Mandamus commands activity while prohibition commands
inactivity, and
(b) Mandamus is available not only against judicial authorities
but also against administrative authorities while prohibition
as well as certiorari are issued against judicial or quasijudicial
authorities.
4. Certiorari:- Strictly speaking, while prohibition is available
at an earlier stage, certiorari is available at a later stage, on similar
grounds. The object of both is to secure that the jurisdiction of an
subordinate court or tribunal is properly exercised and that it does not
usurp the jurisdiction which it does not possess.
5. Quo-warranto:- Quo-warranto is a writ proceeding
whereby the court enquires into the legality of the claim which a
party asserts to a public office, and to oust him from its enjoyment
it the claim be not well founded. The necessary conditions for the
issue of a writ of quo-warranto are following.
(a) The office must be public and it must be created by a
statute or by the constitution itself.
(b) The office must be a substantive one and not merely
the function or employment of a servant at the will
and during the pleasure of another. and
(c) There has been a contravention of the constitution or a
statute or statutory instrument, in appointing such
person to that office.
Thus, quo-warranto is not only an important writ but also a
very powerful instrument for safeguarding against the usurption of public
offices.
5. Miscellaneous Jurisdiction
(a) The Supreme Court is a court of record and enjoys all the
powers of such a court including the power to punish for
contempt of itself.
(b) The law declared by Supreme Court is binding on all courts
within the territory of India.
(c) The Supreme Court is authorised to make rules for regulating
generally the practice and procedure of the Court with the
approval of the President.
(d) The Supreme Court has complete control over its own
establishment.
Law Officers and the Central Law Agency
Attorney General
Article 76 of the constitution makes provision for the
appointment of a law officer the attorney general, by President of
India. It is his duty to give advice to the Government of India upon
legal matters and to perform such other duties of a legal character,
as may from time to time be referred or assigned to him by the
President and to discharge the functions conferred on him by or
under this constitution or any other law for the time being in force.
The Attorney General is the highest law officer in the
country and, in the performance of his duties, he has a right of
audience in all courts in the territory of India.
The Attorney General holds office during the pleasure of
the President and receives such remuneration as the President
determines from time to time. Apart from the Attorney General,
the other law officers are the Solicitor General of India.
7.2.8 Indian Political Parties
In the text book for the eleventh standard the origin, importance,
need for and the kinds of political parties have been narrated. There is
133 134
also information relating to the machinery for conducting elections,
specially with reference to the conduct of general elections in India. In
this book details of national parties and some important regional parties
with reference to their organisation, ideologies and objectives are
described.
In general every political party national or regional is organised
vertically either from the top to the down or the vice versa. In other
words there is a hierarchical structure. Each party has a chairman, a
committee consisting of leading members to advice the party, secretaries
and treasurers. The political parties organise periodical conferences at
different levels in the country. These conferences are attended by the
rank and file of the party. They are utilised to mobilise in the first instance
funds for the party and secondly support from the general public. In
India all political parties follow more or less the same pattern.
The reason for the existence of several political parties in any
country generally is attributed to the differences to which the political
parties subscribe and also due to the differences in the methods adopted
for achieving their ideologies and goals. Ideologies are indispensable
for the existence of a political party. The same is true of the goals.
These two enable a political party to function as a party.
The term ideology was coined by the French scholar Tracy
(1754-1836). Ideology refers to a set of beliefs, convictions and
ideals of the people. Ideology enables to formulate a theory of
government and the programme of political action. Ideology is
action oriented unlike political theory and political philosophy.
Political ideology is a programme for action. In these lines there
are some political ideologies. Among them, nationalism, democracy,
socialism, secularism, liberalism, communism and capitalism are
important. The political parties exist to achieve their objectives and
programmes.
India is a vast country with a huge population. There are
differences among the people with reference to the culture, religion,
language, economic attainments and social distinctions. In other
words the population is diverse in nature and therefore there cannot
be uniformity about anything. This applies to the party system also.
There are national and regional parties in this country. In the next
few pages an account of the different political parties of India is
given.
National Parties
The Indian National Congress
The Indian National Congress is the oldest and a dominant
political party. It was founded on December 28, 1885 by A.O.
Hume. The history of the Congress Party is the history of the
freedom struggle. It began more as a national movement than as a
political party. People from all quarters rallied under the Congress
Party to realise the common goal of political independence. It was
a truly representative body of the people. Hence, the British handed
over the country and power to the Congress on August 15, 1947.
Since then the Congress has been in power for about 50 years,
except for two short spells, at the centre. Until 1967 it was in power
in almost all the States in India. The memorable leaders of the
Congress Party are Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira
Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi, C. Rajagopalachari, K. Kamaraj, P.V.
Narasimha Rao and many others. The Indian National Congress
met with many splits. Today it is known as Congress(I). Its election
symbol is hand.
The Organisation of the Congress
The present constitution of the congress party was designed at
its Nagpur Session of 1920. According to it,
1. the highest body in the Congress hierarchy is the All India
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Congress Committee. Its total membership is about 400.
It holds annual and special sessions of the Congress. It
has wide powers.
2. The next body is the congress Working Committee.
Its members are elected in the All India Congress
Committee itself. This body is like a cabinet. The senior
most congressmen are normally elected to this body.
3. There is a special body known as the Parliamentary
Board. It consists of six members, including the
Congress President.
4. Below the Congress Working committee is the Pradesh
Congress committee one each for a state. This body
has its own president and other office bearers.
5. Below the Pradesh Congress Committee are the District
Congress Committees, one each for a district. Then
there are committees subordinate to it and
6. The Mandal Congress Committees. Any person of 18
years or more can become a primary member of the
Congress.
Ideology of the Congress Party
Before independence, the chief aim of the Congress was to
attain national freedom. After independence, however, a change
occurred in the policy and programme of the Congress. The
objective of establishing a classless and democratic society was
declared in 1955. For this purpose, a resolution on the “socialistic
pattern of society” was adopted at the Avadi Session of the Congress
Party. The Congress party adopted many other policies and
programmes, suitable to the changing needs of the country.
However in the 1990’s radical changes took place in the
ideology of the congress party. The government under the leadership
of Prime Minister Shri P.V. Narashima Rao initiated some economic
reforms. These and other developments did not attach much
importance to the socialistic pattern of society and rigorous policies
with regard to the issue of licence, permit and imposition of taxes.
In short the country was slowly but steadily moving towards what
is popularly known as privatisation, liberalisation and globalisation.
Whichever party after the exit of the congress party in 1996 came
to power had to follow the same. The present government headed
by Dr. Manmohan Singh since May 2004 has to continue the liberal
economic policies. Inspite of these changes, development through
five year plans remains the method of the congress party and other
political party governments.
The congress party right from the time of independence
and Primeminister Shri Jawaharlal Nehru has been following a
policy of friendship with India’s neighbours. In regard to the super
powers such as the United States and the Soviet Union the congress
party government followed a policy which stressed neutrality and
non-alignment.
The Communist Party of India (CPI)
The Communist Party is the second oldest party in India. It
was founded in the year 1924. But soon after its formation, it was
banned by the British Indian Government. Consequently, most of
the Communist workers carried on their work through the Congress.
It remained an unlawful organisation till 1943 when the ban on it
was removed because the Communist Party supported the Second
World War and opposed the Quit India Movement of the Congress
in 1942. After independence, the Communist Party of India
consolidated its position. Ears of corn and sickle is the symbol of the
CPI.
Organisation and Ideology
The Communist Party of India is a party of the World
Communist movement. It has been recognised as a national party.
137 138
However its influence is confined to the States of Kerala, West Bengal
and Tripura.
The Communist Party of India was formed in 1958 at its
Amritsar conference. The constitution of the party was changed to
give up the militant revolutionary ideology. Parliamentary
democracy was accepted as the method to attain the party goals.
The party structure, in theory, is based on democratic centralism.
Democratic centralism rests on the principles of central leader ship
based on intra-party democracy. Intra-party democracy means
freedom of debate within the party to check its action. As soon as
the leadership decides on a programme after debate, the members
preserve discipline and function according to the guidelines.
The primary unit of the party is called the Branch. It is
organised on the basis of village panchayat, municipal ward,
industry etc. Its functions are to sell the party literature, collect
membership etc. Above the Branch are the Local Council, District
Council, State Council and National Council. The National Council
performs every important function such as the election of the
Central Executive Committee, convening of the party congress,
and enforcing the party constitution. the Central Executive
Committee can set up the necessary bodies to handle its work. At
the top are the Chairman and the General Secretary. This type of
party organisation prevents the rise of personality cult. It promotes
decentralisation of power and strengthens the democratic
functioning of the party. This oganisation enables the party to retain
its mass character.
The communist party of India follows the Marxist-Leninist
thought completely. At the same time, it believes in parliamentary
communism. It’s aim is to defeat the reactionary forces opposed to
people’s interest. It wants to transform the parliament from an organ
of bourgeois democracy into a real instrument of people’s will.
The Communist Party of India believes in the following policies
and programmes.
1. Nationalisation of Banks
2. Abolition of private foreign companies and Indian
monopolies
3. Expansion of the scope of public sector
4. State trading
5. Stoppage of foreign capital
6. Drastic agrarian reforms
7. A non-aligned foreign policy
8. Opposition to colonialism, imperialism, and apartheid
The Communist Party of India (Marxist)
The Communist Party of India was split in the year 1964.
The split was due to the schism in the Sino-Russian relations. The
communist leaders had held differences of opinion in their
evaluations of the economic and political situations prevailing in
the country. Further, one group of leaders desired to extend their
support to Nehru’s Government. But the other group of leaders
demanded tough opposition to the reactionary congress. Their
ideological differences reached a stage of no compromise. Finally,
the dissidents held a separate convention of Ten ally in July 1964.
They got separated from the Dange group. Leaders like Jyoti Basu,
E.M.S. Namboodripad and others formed a separate party, known
as the Communist Party of India (Marxist).
The organisation, major aims and policies of the CPI
(Marxist) resemble mostly to those of the CPI. The principles of
democracy socialism and inner party democracy are the bases to the
party’s structure form the Branch upwards the top. The branch is the
living link with masses. The CPI (Marxist) is convinced that India’s
revolutionary movement must follow its own line of action. It believes
139 140
that neither Chinese nor the Russian model would suit India. The symbol
of the (Marxist) include a hammer, sickle and star.
Differences in the ideologies of the CPI and CPI (Marxist)
Besides certain common ideals and programmes, the CPI and
the CPI (Marxist) have the following ideological differences.
1. The CPI (Marxist) considers that revolution could be brought
about in India only by the leaders of the working class. But the CPI
holds that social transformation can be achieved through close alliance
with other democratic forces.
2. CPI (Marxist) believes in dislodging the existing state and
replacing it with a State of People’s Democracy led by the working
class. The CPI supports the idea of forming a national democratic front.
It does not favour the dislodging to the existing governmental system. It
holds that in course of time the reactionary forces will be eliminated
and power may pass into the hands of the party.
3. The CPI (Marxist) believes that the ruling classes would
never give up power voluntarily. Hence it wants to employ force
out of necessity. But the CPI holds faith in peaceful means. Its aim
is to transform the Parliament into a genuine instrument of people’s
will.
Bharatiya Janatha Party (BJP)
The old Bharatiya Jan Sangh is the precursor of the
Bharatiya Janatha Party. The origin of the Jan Sang is linked with
the origin of Hindu nationalism in the 19th Century. In 1875 Swami
Dayanand Saraswati founded the ‘Arya Samaj’. It created a new spirit
among the North Indian Hindus. It also provided impetus to the
movement of Hindu revivalism. The new ideas later formed the
fundamental tenets of the Hindu Mahasabha and the Jan Sang. In 1925,
Keshav Hedgewar formed Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sang (RSS) as a
cultural organisation. Its aim was to regenerate the Hindu Society.
Shyama Prasad Mukherjee formed the Jan Sang in the year 1951.
However, the Jan Sang secured support of the members of the Hindu
Maha Sabha and the RSS. From 1952 to 1971 the party made steady
progress.
In March 1977, the Lok Sabha Elections were held. The Jan
Sang, the Congress (O), the Congress for Democracy, Bharatiya Lok
Dal and the Socialist Party came under one banner of the Janata Party.
The Janata Party Won 270 seats and formed the Government with
Morarji Desai as Prime Minister. The Jan Sang leaders like A.B.
Vajpayee became the cabinet ministers. With the dismantling of Janata
Party in 1980, the Jan Sang leaders recognised the party and renamed
it as Bharatiya Janata Party. The words “Jan Sang” were dropped.
Since then the BJP is maintaining this individual identity. Under the
leadership of Thiru A.B. Vajpayee and Thiru L.K. Advani it became a
national party. It formed government at the Centre with other parties in
1998. Its organisation is democratic as in the case of the Congress.
Lotus is the symbol of the BJP.
Ideological Principles of the BJP
1. The BJP stands for democracy as a form of government
and way of life. It wishes to uphold “political, economic and social
democracy”.
2. It guarantees equality of opportunity and liberty to all
citizens so as to build up a powerful nation.
3. It emphasises the importance of national solidarity and
integration. It favours political and economic decentralisation.
4. The BJP stands for swadeshi economics. However it
is by sheer circumstances of the time forced to adopt liberal economic
policies since 1991. It upholds the principle of nationalisation of basic
and defence industries. It does not favour the state trading.
5. In foreign policy, the BJP is opposed to the Congress. It
feels that “the Congress has sacrificed the interests of the nation in the
name of non-alignment”. It emphasises the need to develop enlightened
self-interest. Foreign policy must be based on reciprocity and mutual
interest.
6. Recently the BJP has announced that corruption free public
life, security and economic nationalism as its major aims.
Janata Dal
The Janata Dal was formed in October 1988. Its notable leaders
are V.P. Singh, Ramakrishna Hegde, S.R. Bommai and Laloo Prasad
Yadav.
The Janata Dal is democratic in Character. Party organisation
is similar to the Old Janata Party. Anybody who believes in the
programmes and policies of the Janata Dal can become a member of
the party. But active members in the Janata Dal must sign an oath of
loyalty to the party. The executive body of the Janata Dal is the Working
Committee. There are basic units from which the higher Committees
are elected. For any office of the party only an active member can
contest the election. There are Committees at Block, District, Provincial
and National levels.
Ideological principles of the Janata Dal
The following are some of the important ideological contents
of the Janata Dal.
The Janata Dal is dedicated to the values and ideals of Gandhiji.
It desires to build up a democratic and socialist state in India. The party
is wedded to the ideals of freedom and secular democracy. The Janata
Dal wants to free the people from the bondage of fear. It stands for
value-based politics and eradication of corruption. Its democratic values
include (1) Electoral reforms, (2) Re-establishment of rule of law, (3)
Protection of the fundamental rights, (4) Independence of judiciary, (5)
Protection of freedom of the people, (6) Grassroot democracy, (7) A
strong federal country with more powers to the states, (8) social political
and economic justice.
The economic principles of the Janata Dal are based on the
Gandhian ideology. It lays emphasis on primacy of agriculture, cottage
and small-scale industries. It has accepted the ideals of right to work,
abolition of unemployment, workers’ participation in the industry, a
national income, wages and prices policy and reduction in economic
inequalities. It believes in the industrial self-reliance.
With respect to foreign policy, the Janata Dal does not differ
much from the Congress. It welcomes foreign investments but not
at the cost of our own industry.
Regional Parties
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
Regionalism in Tamilnadu began to be felt since 1916. It
was due to the dominance of the brahmin community in the
erstwhile Madras presidency. They enjoyed several privileges which
were not available to the majority of the population. It all started
with the establishment of a Dravidian Association by Thiru Natesa
Mudaliar and others in 1912. Subsequently it was known as the
Justice Party. It was dravidian in its outlook and its objectives.
From this party the Dravida Kazhagam under the leadership of
Periyar Ramaswamy was founded in 1944. It attracted the eminent
leader Thiru C.N. Annadurai to its fold. Dravida Kazhagam was a
social reform movement and not a political party. As time passed
on and immediately after independence differences brokeout
between Thiru C.N. Annadurai and Periyar Thiru E.V. Ramaswamy
and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) was formed by Annadurai
on 17th September 1949. From 1949 to 1957 the DMK served the
people only as a social organisation. The DMK had the aim of
establishing a separate Dravidanadu, comprising the four southern states.
But Anna abandoned this ideology on 23rd October 1963 as then the
constitution was amended to bar separation. This was the turning point
in the history of the DMK. Rising sun is its symbol.
The party was turned into a political party when it contested in
the election for the first time in 1957. It secured only a few seats in the
143 144
elections. However under the able guidance of Thiru C.N. Annadurai
and popular support this party emerged victorious in the fourth general
election in 1967 to the Tamilnadu State Assembly and formed
government under the Chief-Ministership of Thiru C.N. Annadurai. Since
then until now the dravidian parties only win in the elections and form
government. The congress could not come to power. Since then it has
been contesting in all general elections to the State Assembly as well as
to the national parliament. After the death of Thiru C.N. Annadurai on
3rd February 1969, Thiru M. Karunanidhi became its leader. Under
his leadership the party won in assembly elections and formed the
government also.
Emergence of AIADMK
Owing to differences Thiru M. Karunanidhi as party President
expelled Thiru. M.G. Ramachandran from the primary membership of
the DMK in 1972. Subsequently MGR launched his own party on
18th October 1972 and named it as Anna Dravida Munnetra
Kazhagam. After some time on 12th September 1976 it was renamed
as All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. MGR declared that
his party will follow the principles and policies pursued by Thiru C.N.
Annadurai. From the beginning to the present the party is popular with
the people of Tamilnadu. Though MGR died in December 1987 the
party continued to maintain its strength and support under the present
leadership of Selvi J. Jayalalithaa.
The basic ideology of the AIADMK is “Annaism”. The essence
of Annaism is mainly the removal of poverty and untouchability. The
other contents of the ideology are self respect, rationalism, socialism
and social service. The party also believed in achieving its objectives
through participation in elections to the state legislature and the national
parliament.
The first time the AIADMK faced an election to the state
assembly was during May 1973 in Dindigul parliamentary
constituency. It won the by-election by polling 52% of the total
votes polled. The DMK came third after Congress (O) of Thiru
Kamaraj. This election was probably just an indication of a turning
point in the electoral fortunes of the major Tamilnadu political
parties.
Telugu Desam
It is like the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam a regional
political party which was founded by Thiru N.T. Rama Rao on
29th March 1982. Thiru N.T. Rama Rao was a charismatic leader
who had acted in films in different roles. Particularly he played in
cinema as divine hero. As a result he was demistified and worshiped
by people as God on earth. Soon this party contested in the elections
to the state assembly and it won in the assembly elections in 1983,
1985 and 1994. As chief minister he had served the people of
Andhra to help eradicate poverty and raise their living standards.
He was succeeded by his son-in-law Thiru. N. Chandrababu Naidu
in 1995. He took several steps to make Andhra Pradesh a forward
state. His contribution to the development of information
technology was so great that the whole of India turned to him for
model and guidance. He and his party extended from outside
support to the Government formed at the centre by
Thiru. A.B. Vajpayee belonging to the National Democratic Alliance
which was unseated from power in the 2004 general elections to the
Lok Sabha. During the same time elections were also held to the Andhra
Pradesh state assembly in which the Telugu Desam party was defeated
in the election. Indian National congress emerged victorious and formed
the government in May 2004.
Aims and Objectives of Telugu Desam Party
The party stood for a fair and just relationship between the
centre and the state. It did not want any distortion in the aims and
objectives of programmes designed for well being of the people. It
desired to bring about changes in the financial arrangement between
the centre and the state. The party favoured the involvement of
states in the planning process which could ensure real federalism. The
party suggested for extensive electoral reforms to strengthen the
democratic system in the country. For this it suggested to ban defection
of elected representative to other parties, restructuring of the election
commission and make it a multi member body and to remove evils in
the election especially the influence of money power. It suggested state
funding of expenditure of candidates who contested in the elections.
Akali Dal: It is a religious cum political party. It was formerly
led by Master Tara Singh. This party demanded a Punjabi speaking
state and Punjabi in Gurmukhi script as the official language of the Punjab
state. The Punjabi suba of the conception of the Akali party came into
existence as a result of the reorganisation of the state of Punjab into
Punjabi-speaking Punjab and the Hindi speaking state of Haryana in
1966.
Like other regional parties of significant following the Akali Dal
also contested in the elections since 1967. This party in alliance with
such parties like Bharatiya Janata Sangh or Janata Party or Bharatiya
Janata Party formed governments and guided the destiny of Punjab.
The demands of the party mainly are Chandigarh should be
handed over to Punjab and be made as its capital. There should be a
just and honourable agreement between Punjab and Haryana for the
distribution of the waters of rivers Ravi and Beas. And justice should
be done to Punjab keeping with the traditional martial qualities of the
Sikhs. There should be equitable share of strength for the Sikhs in the
Indian army. The other minor demands of the Akalidal are
1. Amirtsar should be given the same status as Vatican city (Rome) and declared a holy city.
2. Permission to carry kirpans by the sikhs on domestic flights of Indian Airline.
3. Declaration of Punjabi as the second language in Haryana.
4. Lastly transfer of management of the Bhakra dam to Punjab.
It should be noted that the Akali politics was at its peak in the
early 1980’s. It upset many a calculations of the government of India
relating to the governments of Punjab. There are still several unresolved
demands of the Sikhs.
The other regional political parties worth the name for their
significant contribution to their respective areas are, Assam Gana
Thantra Parishad in Assam and National Conference in Kashmir
and the Plebiscite Front in Kashmir.

Conclusion: In what has been given above with reference
to national and regional political parties is just a description of the
organisation and the objectives of those parties only.
How and in what circumstances these parties captured
political power finally and what they achieved have not been given.
For more details please refer to such books which give information
on party system given in the bibliography.

Exercise
Part A
I. Choose the correct answer
1. The constitution of India came into force on
(a) 26th January 1950 (b) 15th August 1947 (c) 26th January 1947 (d) 15th August 1945
2. Forty Second Amendment Act came into force in the year
(a) 1947 (b) 1976 (c) 1967 (d) 1950
3. Rajya Sabha consists of
(a) 220 members (b) 230 members (c) 250 members (d) 200 members
4. Lok Sabha consists of
(a) 552 members (b) 545 members (c) 500 members (d) 550 members

II. Fill in the blanks
5. The President of India is the ______ citizen of India.
6. The President of India is the Head of the ______
7. The Prime Minister of India is the Head of the ______
8. The Supreme Court of India consists of Chief Justice
and ______ Judges.
9. The Chief Justice of India and Judges of Supreme Court
are appointed by the ______

III. Match the following
10. Lok Sabha – 25 years
11. Rajya Sabha – 30 years
12. Vice President – 35 years

Part B
13. Describe the Gandhian Principles.
14. Write short notes on Council of Ministers.
15. What is the role of the Speaker?

Part C
16. What are the features and functions of Cabinet?
17. Explain the role of the Prime Minister of India.
18. Discuss the importance of regional parties.
19. Discuss the composition of the Lok Sabha.
20. What are the functions of Parliament?
21. Explain the Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of India.
22. Describe the objectives of Dravidian Political Parties.

Part D
23. Bring out the salient features of Indian constitution.
24. Write an essay on the powers and functions of the President of India.
25. Trace the growth of the Indian National Congress.